Part I Context, Ch.6 Instrument Choice

This chapter addresses the problem of choosing environmental law instruments in international environmental law. It begins with a discussion of the various environmental protection instruments, such as environmental benefit trading, pollution taxes, subsidies, and traditional regulation. The chapter suggests that, for the most part, international environmental law has left the choice between traditional regulation and market-based instruments to nation-states. Efforts to create new international environmental law focus more upon forging agreement about goals than on how to achieve goals, since states play such a huge role in implementation and countries can achieve any given goal in a variety of ways. But some devices, which some experts treat as environmental instruments—such as subsidies, liability, and trade sanctions—more often become part of international environmental law. The chapter then discusses the extent to which the desire for international environmental benefit trading has driven a departure from the norm of leaving the choice between market mechanisms and traditional standards to implementing polities.

The Green Growth Policy Agenda

The concept of green growth offers both a means of reframing ecology–economy relationships and defining an agenda for change. This chapter sets out the framework for a green growth policy agenda. This agenda builds upon existing strategies and tools, such as use of mandatory technology or performance standards, but also is distinctive in expanding the scope of policymaking, emphasizing ecology–economy positive-sums, looking beyond ecological to other policy sectors, granting critical ecosystems principled priority in decisions, and incorporating social costs. As for tools, the green growth agenda relies heavily on market-like mechanisms such as pollution taxes or trading, on methods for valuing ecosystems services, and on reorienting investment strategies for green sectors and goals. In sum, there exists a rich and varied green growth policy agenda that may support a transition toward green growth.

Exogenous determinants of health

This chapter considers some determinants that lie completely outside of people’s own control. For such exogenous causes of ill health, the unlucky ones cannot be held responsible for their misfortune. Still, some of these causes are avoidable, in the sense that effective policy interventions exist. Biological variations are in general unavoidable. The chapter investigates two types of determinants associated with early life circumstances. The most systematic health difference that an individual is affected by is whether born a boy or girl: women live 5–6% longer than men. Childhood differences in health follow a strong social gradient, and some figures are included to prove this sad fact. One additional exogenous determinant is the physical environment that affects people’s health. A simple model is presented to show how unhealthy externalities can be reduced by imposing pollution taxes: the polluter pay principle.