Effectiveness of joint 3 + 1 malaria strategy along China–Myanmar cross border areas

Background Cross-border malaria in Laiza City of Myanmar seriously affected Yingjiang County of China and compromised reaching the goal of malaria elimination by 2020. Since 2017, a pilot project on 3 + 1 strategy of joint cross-border malaria prevention and control was carried out for building a malaria buffer in these border areas. Here, 3 were the three preventive lines in China where different focalized approaches of malaria elimination were applied and + 1 was a defined border area in Myanmar where the integrated measures of malaria control were adopted. Methods A 5-year retrospective analysis (2015 to 2019) was conducted that included case detection, parasite prevalence and vector surveillance. Descriptive statistics was used and the incidence or rates were compared. The annual parasite incidence and the parasite prevalence rate in + 1 area of Myanmar, the annual importation rate in Yingjiang County of China and the density of An. minimus were statistically significant indictors to assess the effectiveness of the 3 + 1 strategy. Results In + 1 area of Myanmar from 2015 to 2019, the averaged annual parasite incidence was (59.11 ± 40.73)/1000 and Plasmodium vivax accounted for 96.27% of the total confirmed cases. After the pilot project, the annual parasite incidence dropped 89% from 104.77/1000 in 2016 to 12.18/1000 in 2019, the microscopic parasite prevalence rate dropped 100% from 0.34% in 2017 to zero in 2019 and the averaged density of An. Minimus per trap-night dropped 93% from 1.92 in June to 0.13 in September. The submicroscopic parasite prevalence rate increased from 1.15% in 2017 to 1.66% in 2019 without significant difference between the two surveys (P = 0.084). In Yingjiang County of China, neither indigenous nor introduced case was reported and 100% cases were imported from Myanmar since 2017. The averaged annual importation rate from 2015 to 2019 was (0.47 ± 0.15)/1000. After the pilot project, the annual importation rate dropped from 0.59/1000 in 2016 to 0.28/1000 in 2019 with an overall reduction of 53% in the whole county. The reduction was 67% (57.63/1000 to 18.01/1000) in the first preventive line, 52% (0.20/1000 to 0.10/1000) in the second preventive line and 36% (0.32/1000 to 0.22/1000) in the third preventive line. The averaged density of An. Minimus per trap-night in the first preventive line dropped 94% from 2.55 in June to 0.14 in September, without significant difference from that of + 1 area of Myanmar (Z value = − 1.18, P value = 0.24). Conclusion The pilot project on 3 + 1 strategy has been significantly effective in the study areas and a buffer zone of border malaria was successfully established between Laiza City of Myanmar and Yingjiang County of China.

Entomological and Molecular Surveillance of Anopheles Mosquitoes in Freetown, Sierra Leone, 2019

Background: Malaria is endemic in Sierra Leone, with stable and perennial transmission in all parts of the country. At present, the main prevention and control measures for mosquito vectors here involve insecticide treated nets (ITN) and indoor residual spraying (IRS). The most recent entomological surveillance was conducted prior to the civil war, between 1990 and 1994. Therefore, a new entomological surveillance required to support targeted malaria control strategies.Methods:Anopheles mosquitoes were collected between June and December 2019 using the light trap method. On these, we conducted species identification, analyzed seasonal fluctuation and Plasmodium infection rate, and monitored insecticide resistance.Results: Surveillance of seasonal fluctuation showed that there were two peak of Anopheles density in July (mean 13.67 mosquitoes/trap/night) and October (mean 13.00 mosquitoes/trap/night). Meanwhile, the lowest Anopheles density was seen in early September. Ninety-one representatives of Anopheles gambiae s.l. were selected and identified as An. coluzzii (n = 35) and An. gambiae s.s. (n = 56) using PCR. An. coluzzii and An. gambiae s.s. were found to be heterozygous resistant to the knockdown resistance (kdr) L1014F mutation (100%). Meanwhile, the East African mutation (kdr L1014S) was absent in the tested mosquitoes. Three mosquitoes that tested positive for the parasite, had an individual Plasmodium falciparum infection rate of 12.50, 16.67, and 14.29%. The sampling dates of positive mosquitoes were distributed in the two periods of peak Anopheles mosquito density.Conclusion: This study identified the dominant Anopheles species in Freetown as An. gambiae while the predominant species within the An. gambiae complex was An. gambiae sensu stricto. Surveillance of seasonal fluctuations and high P. falciparum infection rates in Anopheles indicate that the alternation of drought and rainy seasons from June to July, and from October to November, are the key periods for malaria control and prevention in Freetown, Sierra Leone. The high frequency of kdr allele mutations in An. gambiae calls for close monitoring of vector susceptibility to insecticides and tracing of resistance mechanisms in order to develop more effective vector control measures and strategies.

The Efficiency of Live-Capture Traps for the Study of Red Fox (Vulpes vulpes) Cubs: A Three-Year Study in Poland

Safe and efficient techniques for the live capture of carnivores are limited. In this study, we identified some of the factors that could affect the success of capturing red fox cubs with live capture traps (also known as cage traps). During a three-year period, we analysed 32 captures of 25 fox cubs (1.3 captures/fox). We assessed the impact of the following factors: sex of animals, month of trapping, weather conditions recorded for each trap-night, the willingness of cubs to explore and enter cage traps, the researchers’ activity around den complexes before trapping and distances to the nearest village or farm. The overall trap rate (32 captures, including recaptured cubs) and the trap rate for individual cubs (25 captures) was 11.2 cubs/100 trap-nights and 8.7/100 trap-nights, respectively. Animals other than foxes were captured only three times, thus the selectivity of the cage-trapping method was high (32/35 = 91.4%). The probability of capturing one cub per night was 70.2% (32 cubs/47 nights). Cubs inhabiting dens in the vicinity of human settlements were less likely to explore and enter traps. Vixens were more likely to relocate their litters if the activity of the staff setting the traps was intense at the trapping site. The success of trapping was higher during poor weather as, for example, during rain or thunderstorms. None of the trapped animals suffered any injuries. Whereas cage trapping can be an effective and safe capture method for juvenile foxes, capture efficiency is affected by the experience of the trappers and a range of other factors including weather and distance to human settlements.

Community based integrated vector management for malaria control: lessons from three years’ experience (2016–2018) in Botor-Tolay district, southwestern Ethiopia

Background Integrated vector management (IVM) remains a key strategy in the fight against vector-borne diseases including malaria. However, impacts of the strategy should be regularly monitored based on feedback obtained through research. The objective of this study was to assess the impact of IVM for malaria control in Botor-Tolay district, southwestern Ethiopia after three years (2016–2018) of IVM implementation. Method Prior to the implementation of IVM, a survey of socio-demographic, malaria burden, and communities’ perception towards malaria control was conducted in 200 households selected at random from 12 villages using standard questionnaire. Households were revisited after three years of project implementation for impact assessment. Compiled malaria case data was obtained from district health bureau for the three years period of the study while adult mosquito collection was conducted during each year using CDC light traps. Monthly larval mosquito collections were made each year using standard dipping method. Community education and mobilization (CEM) was made through different community-based structures. Results The proportion of respondents who sought treatment in health facilities showed a significant increase from 76% in 2015 to 90% in 2018(P < 0.001). An average of 6.3 working and 2.3 school days were lost per year in a household due to parents and children falling sick with malaria. Malaria costs in a household in Botor-Tolay averaged 13.3 and 4.5 USD per episode for medical treatment and transportation respectively. Significantly fewer adult mosquitoes were collected in 2018 (0.37/house/trap-night) as compared to 2015 (0.73/house/trap-night) (P < .001). Malaria cases significantly declined in 2018 (262) when compared to the record in 2015 (1162) (P < 0.001). Despite improved human behavioral changes towards mosquito and malaria control, there were many setbacks too. These include reluctance to seek treatment in a timely manner, low user compliance of LLINs and low net repairing habit. Conclusion The coordinated implementation of community-based education, environmental management, larviciding together with main core vector control interventions in Botor-Tolay district in Southwestern Ethiopia have contributed to significant decline in malaria cases reported from health facilities. However, commitment to seeking treatment by people with clinical symptoms of malaria and to repair of damaged mosquito nets remained low.

First camera trap documentation of the Crab-eating Mongoose Herpestes urva (Hodgson, 1836) (Carnivora: Feliformia: Herpestidae) in Barandabhar Corridor Forest in Chitwan, Nepal

The systematic study in 2015 and 2016 documented the first camera trap image of the Crab-eating Mongoose Herpestes urva in Barandabhar Corridor Forest in Chitwan, Nepal. The corridor was divided into 88 grids, each of 1km by 1km. A pair of cameras was placed for 15 nights in each grid and the total camera trap night effort was 2,640. There were two separate events capturing three independent images and five separate events capturing seven independent images of the Crab-eating Mongoose in 2015 and 2016, respectively. Photo capture rate in camera traps were 0.01 and 0.03 respectively in 2015 and 2016. The presence of this species opens new scope for wildlife professionals and scientific communities to take further steps for its conservation.

Field Evaluation of a Redesigned Oviposition Trap to Monitor Gravid Invasive Aedes Mosquitoes in a Suburban Environment

ABSTRACT Oviposition cup traps (OCT) are commonly used to detect gravid invasive Aedes mosquitoes. Employing OCT during hot summer months or over broad geographic areas is labor intensive because the water in these small-volume traps must be frequently replenished to maintain their attractiveness to mosquitoes. We developed low-cost and simple-to-build oviposition bucket traps (OBT) that attract mosquitoes for more than 1 wk. Comparison of adjacently placed OCT and OBT in the city of Madera, CA, showed OBT captured significantly more Ae. aegypti eggs per trap-night relative to the OCT (8.8 ± 2.6 and 4.1 ± 1.1, respectively; paired t-test, P = 0.0076), and a significantly greater proportion of OBT contained Ae. aegypti eggs relative to OCT (83% of OBT and 65% of OCT; Fisher's exact test, P = 0.0214). The results suggest that OBT can collect larger quantities of Ae. aegypti eggs relative to OCT while potentially offering greater flexibility in scheduling trap inspections.

Kelimpahan Spesies Kelelawar Ordo Chiroptera di Gua Wilayah Selatan Pulau Lombok NTB

ABSTRAKPenelitian untuk mengetahui kelimpahan kelelawar di beberapa gua di wilayah selatan PulauLombok telah dilakukan. Survey dilakukan selama bulan Maret sampai Mei 2014 pada 5 guayaitu Gua Gale-Gale, Gua Buwun, Gua Kenculit, Gua Raksasa, dan Gua Pantai Surga.Pengambilan sampel kelelawar untuk identifikasi dilakukan dengan menggunakan Mist net (jaringkabut). Kelelawar yang tertangkap diidentifikasi lebih lanjut di Laboratorium Biologi FMIPAUniversitas Mataram. Hasil penelitian menunjukkan, bahwa ada 6 Famili dengan 12spesies.Spesies tersebut diantaranya; Hipposederos ater memiliki kelimpahan yang paling tinggi(18,1 individu/trap/malam) dibandingkan dengan kelimpahan spesies kelelawar yang lain.kemudian diikuti secara berturut-turut oleh Rhinolopus simplex (10,3 individu/trap/malam),Rosettus amplxicaudatus (7,5 individu/trap/malam), Miniopterus pusillus (7,3individu/trap/malam), Hipposideros diadema (6,7 individu/trap/malam), Eonicteris speleae (6.2individu/trap/malam), Phoniscus atrox dan Taphozous melanopogon (masing-masing memilikikelimpahan 5,2 individu/trap/malam), Macroglossus minimus (4,5 individu/trap/malam), Murinacyclotis (4,3 individu/trap/malam), Rhinopoma microphyllum (2,7 individu/trap/malam), danHipposideros bicolor (1,1 individu/trap/malam). Kelimpahan spesies kelelawar tertinggiditemukan di Gua Raksasa Tanjung Ringgit dengan kelimpahan sebesar 27,5 individu/trap/malam.Selanjutnya diikuti oleh Gua Gale-gale 25,3 individu/trap/malam, Gua Buwun 9,3ind/Trap.malam, gua Pantai Surga 8,7 individu/trap/malam, dan gua Kenculit 8,2individu/trap/malam.Kata Kunci: Kelelawar, Gua, Wilayah Selatan Pulau LombokABSTRACTA research on diversity of bats of cave in the south area of Lombok island was conducted.Five caves survied for this research were Gale-Gale, Buwun, Kenculit, Raksasa, and cave PantaiSurga. Survey was done during Mart to Mei 2014. Samples of bat were obtained by using Mistnet. The bats were observed and identified in the Biology Laboratorium FMIPA University ofMataram. This research fully identified 12 species from 6 Famili of bats. The species are such as:Hipposederos ater, Rhinolopus simplex, Rosettus amplxicaudatus, Miniopterus pusillus,Hipposideros diadema, Eonicteris speleae, Phoniscus atrox, Taphozous melanopogon,Macroglossus minimus, Murina cyclotis, Rhinopoma microphyllum, and Hipposideros bicolor.The highest density was recorded for Hipposederos ater (18,1 ind/trap/night). The other specieswith relative similar density were Rhinolopus simplex (10,3 ind/trap/night), Rosettusamplxicaudatus (7,5 ind/trap/night), Miniopterus pusillus (7,3 ind/trap/night), Hipposiderosdiadema (6,7 in/trap/night), Eonicteris speleae (6.2 ind/trap/night), Phoniscus atrox andTaphozous melanopogon (each of 5,2 ind/trap/night), Macroglossus minimus (4,5 ind/trap/night),Murina cyclotis (4,3 ind/trap/night), Rhinopoma microphyllum (2,7 ind/trap/night), andHipposideros bicolor (1,1 ind/trap/night). The highest density (27,5 ind/trap/night) of bat wasrecorded in Raksasa cave Tanjung Ringgit. It followed by density of bat recorded in caves of Gale-gale, Buwun, Pantai Surga, and Kenculit were 25,3 ind/trap/night, 9,3 ind/Trap/night, 8,7ind/trap/night, and 8,2 ind/trap/night, respectively.Key words: Bat, Cave, South Region of Lombok Island

Behavioural responses of brushtail possums to live trapping and implications for trap-catch correction

Context The behavioural response of animals to repeated trapping has implications for correction of population and monitoring indices that use catch per unit effort. Failure to account for sprung traps introduces biases into estimates of relative abundance. The time when animals get caught in live traps is often ignored, but it can provide important information about temporal movement patterns relevant to this issue. Aims We assessed changes in the behaviour of brushtail possums (Trichosurus vulpecula), a nocturnal marsupial, in response to repeated trapping and evaluated the potential benefit of correcting a commonly used index of abundance by using time-of-capture information. Methods Possums were live-trapped for three nights each month over a 20-month period in baited cage traps in a 6-ha area of native lowland forest in the southern North Island, New Zealand. Trapped possums were individually identified on first capture. Timing devices were attached to the traps to measure how long after sunset traps were sprung and how that time related to the duration of the trap-night (sunset to sunrise). Key results Possums were trapped, on average, ~1.25 h after sunset. Traps triggered other than by possums were sprung on average 1–2 h later. Possums caught on the first night of a trapping session were caught significantly earlier than those caught on subsequent nights. Previous capture influenced the time of subsequent capture in a trapping session in complex ways, and recapture times were generally earlier than times of first capture. Possums were captured, on average, after 11% of the duration of a trap-night and traps were triggered by animals other than possums, on average, after 22% of the duration of a trap-night. Conclusions The data on time of capture of possums and triggering of sprung traps suggested a need to alter the commonly used correction factor for population indices for possums, because, on average, traps were sprung for significantly more of each trapping interval (i.e. trap-night) than the half a trap-night assumed in the correction factor. Implications Better understanding of possum foraging behaviour is a key to more effective control using traps. In that context, more research is needed to understand the reasons for individual differences in trappability. Although it is theoretically desirable to account for sprung traps when trapping is used to index populations, to reduce biases in estimates of relative abundance, correction of the standardised residual trap-catch index for possums is probably unimportant in practical terms, because most possum control reduces numbers to levels (2–5% trap catch) at which correction of the index is unimportant. The principal exception to this is likely to be when there is a high level of non-target interference from rodents.

Surveillance des moucherons piqueurs : détermination des périodes sans vecteurs en Suisse de 2007 à 2009

Since the introduction of bluetongue virus serotype 8 (BTV-8) in Northern Europe, a surveillance of the disease has been imple­mented in Switzerland, based on a collaborative network includ­ing the Swiss Federal Veterinary Office, the Institute of Virology and Immunoprophylaxis and the Institute of Parasitology (IPZ). In accordance with European regulations, the surveillance aims at determining zones which are seasonally free of bluetongue by showing lack of evidence of disease transmission or of activity of competent vectors. The results of two years (2007–2009) of sur­veillance of the winter activity of biting midges are presented. BT zones were identified for Switzerland and Liechtenstein based on (i) the 45x45 km grid, (ii) a spatial risk analysis on the occur­rence of biting midges and susceptible livestock, and (iii) the limits of the Swiss administrative units (cantons). Thus, 16 BT zones were defined, comparable in area size (as ‘risk’ areas) and in populations of cattle, sheep and goats. Insects were caught with Onderstepoort ultraviolet-light traps once weekly at 19 sta­tions, outdoors, from dusk to dawn, and from October to May. Trapping was maintained at six stations during the midge activ­ity season. Trappings were implemented by volunteer farmers or local veterinary offices, and samples were sent to the Swiss reference laboratory for vector entomology (IPZ) where midge activity was classified from ‘no activity’ to ‘very high activity’. Midges were caught at all stations, but in very different numbers. From mid-November 2007 until end of March 2008 there was a period of very low Culicoides activity (catches without midges or below the threshold of 10 midges/trap/night). Then, the activity increased gradually, and the vector-free period was defined as ending on April 15th. All sites showed activity during the whole summer, globally with a decrease from July to September. The highest activity was recorded in Northern Switzerland (Basel), with an average of 3268 midges/trap/night. Surprisingly, the highest activity was not observed in Southern Switzerland where the mild climate is influenced by the Mediterranean Sea, but north of the Alps characterized by an Atlantic climate. During October to mid-November 2008, midge activity decreased, and less than 10 midges or 5 parous midges/trap/night were caught at all sites after mid-November. The vector-free period was thus determined as starting on December 15, 2008. Then, a very low activity was observed in Basel during early January, and no activity was observed in the cantons until the first week of March 2009. Very few midges were trapped until beginning of April, and first parous and blood-fed females were caught after mid- April. Thus, the vector-free period was declared to end on April 20, 2009. Vector-free periods could be defined for the whole of Switzerland during the two years of winter surveillance. A third year of surveillance is ongoing, and three-years’ data will be ana­lysed for a possible extrapolation of an annual vector-free period.

Distribution and abundance of the south-eastern form of the greater long-eared bat Nyctophilus timoriensis.

In south-eastern Australia, the greater long-eared bat (Nyctophilus timoriensis) has been rarely captured and is considered uncommon, although large areas within its range have received little survey effort. We collate existing capture records and present new data on N. timoriensis captures from recent fauna inventory surveys across the western slopes and plains of New South Wales (NSW). From 1628 trap nights at 39 study areas, 118 N. timoriensis were captured out of a total of 8266 bats. In larger remnants in the Brigalow Belt South Bioregion, N. timoriensis was captured at a rate of 0.1 to 0.6 per trap night and made up 7 to 9% of bat captures. This was approximately an order of magnitude greater than in other study areas throughout western NSW. There were no captures from the Darling Riverine Plains Bioregion. These surveys show that the large vegetation remnants of Goonoo, Pilliga West and Pilliga East study areas are a distinct stronghold in the distribution of the south-eastern form of N. timoriensis.