The adaptive landscape of a metallo-enzyme is shaped by environment-dependent epistasis

Enzymes can evolve new catalytic activity when environmental changes present them with novel substrates. Despite this seemingly straightforward relationship, factors other than the direct catalytic target can also impact adaptation. Here, we characterize the catalytic activity of a recently evolved bacterial methyl-parathion hydrolase for all possible combinations of the five functionally relevant mutations under eight different laboratory conditions (in which an alternative divalent metal is supplemented). The resultant adaptive landscapes across this historical evolutionary transition vary in terms of both the number of “fitness peaks” as well as the genotype(s) at which they are found as a result of genotype-by-environment interactions and environment-dependent epistasis. This suggests that adaptive landscapes may be fluid and molecular adaptation is highly contingent not only on obvious factors (such as catalytic targets), but also on less obvious secondary environmental factors that can direct it towards distinct outcomes.

Organophosphorus Nerve Agents: Types, Toxicity, and Treatments

Organophosphorus compounds are extensively used worldwide as pesticides which cause great hazards to human health. Nerve agents, a subcategory of the organophosphorus compounds, have been produced and used during wars, and they have also been used in terrorist activities. These compounds possess physiological threats by interacting and inhibiting acetylcholinesterase enzyme which leads to the cholinergic crisis. After a general introduction, this review elucidates the mechanisms underlying cholinergic and noncholinergic effects of organophosphorus compounds. The conceivable treatment strategies for organophosphate poisoning are different types of bioscavengers which include stoichiometric, catalytic, and pseudocatalytic. The current research on the promising treatments specifically the catalytic bioscavengers including several wild-type organophosphate hydrolases such as paraoxonase and phosphotriesterase, phosphotriesterase-like lactonase, methyl parathion hydrolase, organophosphate acid anhydrolase, diisopropyl fluorophosphatase, human triphosphate nucleotidohydrolase, and senescence marker protein has been widely discussed. Organophosphorus compounds are reported to be the nonphysiological substrate for many mammalian organophosphate hydrolysing enzymes; therefore, the efficiency of these enzymes toward these compounds is inadequate. Hence, studies have been conducted to create mutants with an enhanced rate of hydrolysis and high specificity. Several mutants have been created by applying directed molecular evolution and/or targeted mutagenesis, and catalytic efficiency has been characterized. Generally, organophosphorus compounds are chiral in nature. The development of mutant enzymes for providing superior stereoselective degradation of toxic organophosphorus compounds has also been widely accounted for in this review. Existing enzymes have shown limited efficiency; hence, more effective treatment strategies have also been critically analyzed.

Secondary environmental variation creates a shifting evolutionary watershed for the methyl-parathion hydrolase enzyme

Enzymes can evolve new catalytic activity when their environments change to present them with novel substrates. Despite this seemingly straightforward relationship, factors other than the direct catalytic target can also impact enzyme adaptation. Here, we characterize the adaptive landscape separating an ancestral dihydrocoumarin hydrolase from a methyl parathion hydrolase descendant under eight different environments supplemented with alternative divalent metals. This variation shifts an evolutionary watershed, causing the outcome of adaptation to depend on the environment in which it occurs. The resultant landscapes also vary in terms both the number and the genotype(s) of “fitness peaks” as a result of genotype-by-environment (G×E) interactions and environment-dependent epistasis (G×G×E). This suggests that adaptive landscapes may be fluid and that molecular adaptation is highly contingent not only on obvious factors (such as catalytic targets) but also on less obvious secondary environmental factors that can direct it toward distinct outcomes.

Higher-order epistatic networks underlie the evolutionary fitness landscape of a xenobiotic-degrading enzyme

Characterizing the adaptive landscapes that encompass the emergence of novel enzyme functions can provide molecular insights into both enzymatic and evolutionary mechanisms. Here, we combine ancestral protein reconstruction with biochemical, structural, and mutational analyses to characterize the functional evolution of methyl-parathion hydrolase (MPH), a xenobiotic organophosphate-degrading enzyme. We identify five mutations that are necessary and sufficient for the evolution of MPH from an ancestral dihydrocoumarin hydrolase. In-depth analyses of the adaptive landscapes encompassing this evolutionary transition revealed that a complex interaction network, defined in part by higher-order epistasis, determined the adaptive pathways that were available. By also characterizing the adaptive landscapes in terms of their functional activity towards three other OP substrates, we reveal that subtle differences in substrate substituents drastically alter the enzyme’s epistatic network by changing its intramolecular interactions. Our work suggests that the mutations function collectively to enable substrate recognition via subtle structural repositioning.