Social Disruption: Sublethal pesticides in pollen lead to Apis mellifera queen events and brood loss

Eusocial Apis mellifera colonies depend on queen longevity and brood viability to survive, as the queen is the sole reproductive individual and the maturing brood replenishes the shorter lived worker bees. Production of many crops rely on both pesticides and bee pollination to improve crop quantity and quality. We looked at the resiliency of queens and their brood after one month of sublethal exposure to field relevant doses of pesticides that mimic exposure during commercial pollination contracts. We exposed full size colonies to pollen contaminated with field-relevant doses of the fungicides (chlorothalonil and propicanizole), insecticides (chlorypyrifos and fenpropathrin) or both, noting a significant reduction in pollen consumption in colonies exposed to fungicides compared to control. While we found no difference in the total amount of pollen collected per colony, a higher proportion of pollen to non-pollen foragers was detected in all pesticide exposed colonies. After ceasing treatments we measured brood development, discovering a significant increase in brood loss and/or cannibalism across all pesticide exposed groups. Sublethal pesticide exposure in general was linked to reduced production of replacement workers and a change in protein acquisition (pollen vs. non-pollen foraging). Fungicide exposure also resulted in increased loss of the reproductive queen.

Effect of Immune Inducers on Nosema ceranae Multiplication and Their Impact on Honey Bee (Apis mellifera L.) Survivorship and Behaviors

Nosema disease is a major disease of honey bees caused by two species of microsporidia, Nosema apis and N. ceranae. Current control involves using antibiotics, which is undesirable because of possible antibiotic resistance and contamination. In this study, flagellin, zymosan, chitosan, and peptidoglycan were investigated as alternatives for controlling N. ceranae infections and for their effect on bee survivorship and behaviors. Chitosan and peptidoglycan significantly reduced the infection, and significantly increased survivorship of infected bees, with chitosan being more effective. However, neither compound altered the bees’ hygienic behavior, which was also not affected by the infection. Chitosan significantly increased pollen foraging and both compounds significantly increased non-pollen foraging compared to healthy and infected bees. Memory retention, evaluated with the proboscis extension reflex assay, was temporarily impaired by chitosan but was not affected by peptidoglycan, nor was it affected by N. ceranae infection compared to the non-infected bees. This study indicates that chitosan and peptidoglycan provide benefits by partially reducing N. ceranae spore numbers while increasing survivorship compared to N. ceranae infected bees. Also, chitosan and peptidoglycan improved aspects of foraging behavior even more than in healthy bees, showing that they may act as stimulators of important honey bee behaviors.

Young bumblebees may rely on both direct pollen cues and early experience when foraging

An adequate supply of macro- and micronutrients determines health and reproductive success in most animals. Many bee species, for example, collect nectar and pollen to satisfy their demands for carbohydrates, protein and fat, respectively. Bees can assess the quality of pollen by feeding on it, but also pre-digestively by means of chemotactile assessment. Whether they additionally use larval nutritional experience, as has been shown for Drosophila melanogaster and Bombyx mori , is unknown. In this study, we tested whether pollen selection of bumblebee foragers is affected by nutritional experience (acquired before the onset of foraging) or solely by food quality. Bumblebee larvae were fed with one out of three different pollen blends. As adults, they were offered all three blends when they started foraging for the first time. We found all treatment groups to prefer one out of the three blends. This blend provided the highest nutritional quality and increased the bees' lifespan, as shown by feeding studies with microcolonies. Besides, bees also chose the pollen blend fed during their larval stage more often than expected, indicating a significant effect of pre-foraging experience on adult pollen foraging behaviour. The combination of both direct pollen quality assessment and pre-foraging experience (i.e. during the larval phase or as early imagines) seems to allow foraging bumblebees to efficiently select the most suitable pollen for their colony.

Pollen grain size associated with pollinator feeding strategy

Angiosperm pollen grain diameter varies greatly from a few microns to over 100, but the selective forces driving the interspecific variation in pollen size remain unclear. Although both pre- and post-pollination hypotheses have been proposed, empirical evidence remains scarce. Here we propose that visits by pollen-foraging pollinators have selected against large pollen grains. An association between pollinator behaviour and pollen grain size was confirmed by field studies of 80 flowering species in natural communities, showing that pollinators positively collected pollen in those species with relatively smaller pollen grains but rarely did so in species with larger ones. Allowing for the confounding effects of pollinator type, flower size or style length and pollen grain number, we found a significant effect of pollen-foraging behaviour on variation in pollen grain size, particularly in bee-pollinated plants. While these results suggest that many plant species whose pollen is collected or consumed by pollinators produce small pollen grains, it remains unclear whether pollen grain size is directly affected by pollinator foraging habit or indirectly mediated by pollen number trade-offs.

The Ratio of Sunflower Pollens Foraged by Apis mellifera Is More Than That of Apis cerana Does During Sunflower Blooming

Bias foraging of pollen is general in different pollinators since various nutrition demanding, co-evolution and interaction of insect-plant. To clarify the preference of pollen foraging during sunflower blooming, the pollen foraging behaviors of Apis mellifera Linnaeus and Apis cerana Fabricius were observed. Our results displayed that two summits of pollen foraging occurred in the morning before the ambient temperature climbed up to thirty-one degree centigrade and in the afternoon after the ambient temperature decreased below thirty-one degree centigrade, respectively. Notably, the first foraging summit of Apis cerana emerged one hour earlier than that of Apis mellifera. These results imply that Apis mellifera is less resistant to low temperature but more resistant to high temperature than Apis cerana does. The colonies were surrounded by sunflowers with sporadic weeds, while only few maize dispersed over two hundred meters away. However, no more than forty percent of total pollens foraged by Apis mellifera was from sunflower, and which was no more than twenty percent in Apis cerana group. These results suggest that sunflower pollens are not the prior choice for both honey bee species, while the ratio of sunflower pollens foraged by Apis mellifera is more than that of Apis cerana does.

Solitary bee pollinators adjust pollen foraging to the unpredictable flower opening of a species of Petunia (Solanaceae)

Details of the foraging patterns of solitary bees are much less well known than those of social species, and these patterns are often adjusted to exploit floral resources of one or only a few species. The specialized flower-visiting bees of Petunia are good models for investigating such foraging patterns. Here we analysed the floral biology and pollen presentation schedule of the endangered Petunia mantiqueirensis in mixed Araucaria forests of Serra da Mantiqueira, Brazil. Pollinators and their pollen foraging behaviour and food specialization were determined through analyses of scopa pollen loads. Flowers opened throughout the day and presented all their pollen resources within the first 30 min of anthesis, thus providing their pollen resources in an asynchronous fashion in one-flower packages throughout the day. Females of Pseudagapostemon fluminensis were the most frequent flower visitors, contacting stigmas in 96% of their visits, and were the unique effective pollinators of Petunia mantiqueirensis. These pollinators were responsible for the first three visits to 115 individually monitored flowers at any daylight hour, removing ~86% of a flower’s total pollen supply during the first visit. Although female bees harvest the majority of pollen resources of Petunia mantiqueirensis, analyses of scopa loads revealed that most of them also collect pollen from plants of other families while foraging for pollen in Petunia flowers.