Cultivar and fertilizer S rate interaction effects on canola yield, seed quality and S uptake

2006 ◽  
Vol 86 (1) ◽  
pp. 91-98 ◽  
Author(s):  
S. S. Malhi ◽  
K. S Gill
Keyword(s):  
Protein Concentration ◽  
Seed Quality ◽  
Yield Potential ◽  
Yield Response ◽  
Brassica Napus L ◽  
Straw Yield ◽  
S Deficiency ◽  
S Uptake ◽  
Oil Concentration ◽  
Rate Interaction

Since canola has a high requirement for S, and canola cultivars have differences in growth rate and yield potential, a differential response of canola cultivars to soil S deficiency and S fertilization can be expected. A 3 site-year field study was conducted on S-deficient soils in northeastern Saskatchewan to determine response of four canola cultivars to S deficiency and S fertilization in terms of yield (seed and straw), seed quality (oil, protein and S concentration), and S uptake (seed and straw). Two Brassica napus L. cultivars (Quantum and AC Excel) and two B. rapa L. cultivars (Maverick and AC Parkland) were compared at 0, 5, 10, and 15 kg S ha-1 rates. Both the actual values of seed and straw yield and seed S uptake and the responses to S fertilization were greater for the B. napus than B. rapa cultivars. Optimal yield response for all the four cultivars occurred at the 10 kg S ha-1 rate, though seed quality and S uptake responded up to the 15 kg S ha-1 rate. Sulphur fertilization response was quadratic for seed and straw yield, seed oil and protein concentration, and S uptake in seed, while the response for seed S concentration and straw S uptake was inconsistent. In summary, in spite of differences in magnitude of the response of tested cultivars to S fertilization, the similar nature of the response and optimal yield at the same S rate indicated th at specific S fertilization recommendations for individual canola cultivars are unnecessary. Key words: Canola cultivars, oil concentration, seed quality, S rates, S uptake, yield

Seeding rate, fertilizer level and disease management effects on hybrid versus open pollinated canola (Brassica napus L.)

2007 ◽  
Vol 87 (2) ◽  
pp. 255-266 ◽  
Author(s):  
S. A. Brandt ◽  
S. S. Malhi ◽  
D. Ulrich ◽  
G. P. Lafond ◽  
H. R. Kutcher ◽  
...  
Keyword(s):  
Brassica Napus ◽  
Seed Yield ◽  
Protein Concentration ◽  
Seed Quality ◽  
Yield Potential ◽  
Dry Matter Accumulation ◽  
Seeding Rate ◽  
Brassica Napus L ◽  
Fungicide Application ◽  
Oil Concentration

New canola cultivars have much higher yield potential than conventional canola cultivars and changes in production practices may be needed to achieve optimum yield from these cultivars. Studies were conducted to investigate the influence of seeding rates (2.8, 5.6 and 8.4 kg ha-1), fertilizer level (67% – low, 100% – medium, 133% – high of the commercial recommendation) and fungicide application on growth, dry matter accumulation, seed yield and seed quality using two high-yielding canola cultivars [cv. Quantum, open pollinated (OP), and cv. Invigor™, hybrid (HYB)]. The studies were conducted from 1999 to 2001 at three sites in the Parkland region of the Canadian prairies. The two cultivars did not differ in their responses to seeding and fertilizer rates, or fungicide application. Plant density was lower for the HYB than the OP because the HYB had larger seeds, with fewer seeds per kilogram. Emergence declined slightly at high fertilizer levels in some site-years due to fertilizer induced seedling damage, but increased with seeding rate. Time to onset of flowering and maturity showed no consistent influence of cultivar, and tended to be somewhat prolonged with an increase in fertilizer levels, but reduced by an increase in seeding rate. On average, the HYB produced 822 kg ha-1 more biomass and 200 kg ha-1 more seed yield than the OP. Sclerotinia stem rot incidence was very low, except at Melfort in 2000, and fungicide application generally failed to benefit the crop. Seed yield was generally increased when seeding rate was increased, with the largest increase occurring from 2.8 to 5.8 kg ha-1. Seed yield responses to the high rates of seeding or fertilizer only occurred where both inputs were at the highest level, indicating that the optimum level of one was dependent upon the level of the other input. Oil and protein concentration in the seed was higher for the HYB than the OP. High fertilizer levels generally increased the total yield of biomass and seed, and protein concentration in the seed, but usually reduced oil concentration in the seed. Increased seeding rate resulted in a small increase in oil concentration and a small reduction in protein concentration in the seed. Net returns were greatest and least variable for the HYB cultivar. Overall, the HYB performed better than the OP, and the full economic value of high-yielding canola cultivars was only realized when fertilizer and seeding rates were at or above the current recommended rates. Key words: Canola (Brassica napus L.), fertilizer rate, fungicide, hybrid canola, oil content, open pollinated canola, protein content, seeding rate, seed quality, yield

scholarly journals Influence of four successive annual applications of elemental S and sulphate-S fertilizers on yield, S uptake and seed quality of canola

2005 ◽  
Vol 85 (4) ◽  
pp. 777-792 ◽  
Author(s):  
S. S. Malhi
Keyword(s):  
Ammonium Sulphate ◽  
Seed Yield ◽  
Best Management Practices ◽  
Protein Concentration ◽  
Management Practices ◽  
Seed Quality ◽  
Straw Yield ◽  
Plant Soil ◽  
S Uptake ◽  
S Fertilizers

The effectiveness of elemental S fertilizers in increasing crop yield in S-deficient soils depends on the rate at which S is oxidized to sulphate in soil for plant uptake. A 4-yr field experiment (1999 to 2002) was conducted with canola (Brassica napus L. or Brassica rapa L.) on a S-deficient loamy sand Gray Luvisol soil near Tisdale in northeastern Saskatchewan to determine the effectiveness of elemental S and sulphate-S fertilizers applied annually at different times and S rates on seed and straw yield, oil and protein concentration in seed, concentration and uptake of S in seed and straw, amount of residual sulphate-S in soil, and recovery of applied S in plant, soil and plant + soil. The S fertilizer treatments included granular types of two bentonite -elemental S fertilizers (ES-90 and ES-95), one sulphate-S (ammonium sulphate), one containing elemental S and sulphate-S (Agrium Plus), and a zero-S control. The S fertilizers were surface-broadcast at 10 or 20 kg S ha-1 rates in the previous autumn or in spring, and incorporated into the soil a few days prior to seeding in May. Canola plants in the zero-S control showed S deficiency in the growing season. Seed yield, straw yield, oil concentration in seed, and S concentration and uptake in seed and straw increased with the sulphate-S fertilizer in all years. There was no significant increase in seed yield from the elemental S fertilizers in 1999, though autumn application tended to give slightly greater seed yield than the spring application. Elemental S fertilizers usually increased seed yield and S uptake significantly over the zero-S control, but yield and S uptake were less than the sulphate-S fertilizer in most cases in 2000, in many cases in 2001 and in some cases in 2002, especially when the S fertilizers were applied in spring. Autumn-applied elemental S usually had greater seed yield and S uptake than the spring-applied elemental S in 2000, 2001 and 2002. On the other hand, autumn-applied ammonium sulphate produced or tended to produce lower seed yield and S uptake than spring-applied ammonium sulphate in some cases. There was little effect of S fertilizer application on protein concentration in seed. In summary, the results indicated that elemental S fertilizers were not effective in increasing canola yield and S uptake on the S-deficient soil in the first year of application. The elemental S fertilizers became effective in the second to fourth year, but seed yield and S uptake were still less than those obtained with sulphate-S fertilizer, particularly when the S fertilizers were applied in spring. The findings suggest the need for research on best management practices to improve effectiveness of elemental S fertilizers. Key words: Canola, elemental and sulphate S fertilizers, oil and protein concentration, seed yield, sulphur uptake

Interactive effects of N and S fertilizers on canola yield and seed quality on S-deficient Gray Luvisol soils in northeastern Saskatchewan

2007 ◽  
Vol 87 (2) ◽  
pp. 211-222 ◽  
Author(s):  
S. S. Malhi ◽  
K. S. Gill
Keyword(s):  
Seed Quality ◽  
N Uptake ◽  
Interactive Effects ◽  
Yield And Quality ◽  
S Deficiency ◽  
S Uptake ◽  
Oil Concentration ◽  
N Rates ◽  
S Application ◽  
Gray Luvisol

On marginally S-deficient soils in the Parkland region, application of high rates of N and other fertilizers in combination with more frequent productionof canola (Brassica napus L. or B. rapa L.) causes rapid depletion of S and nutrient imbalance in soil, and S deficiency and yield reductionfor canola. Field experiments on Gray Luvisol (Boralfs) soils deficient in available N and S were conducted in northeastern Saskatchewan. Interactive effects of N (0, 50 100 and 150 kg N ha-1) and S (0, 10, 20 and 30 kg S ha-1) rates on yield, seed quality, and uptake of S and N in canola were determined. In the absence of S application, increasing N rate made the S deficiency symptoms more severe, and reduced yield, S concentration, oil concentration, S uptake and N uptake of seed, but there was a general response of no effect or some increase in protein concentration, S and N uptakein straw up to 50 or 100 kg N ha-1. When S was applied, canola yield, S concentration, S uptake and N uptake of seed as well as the yield and S uptake of straw increased with increasing N rate. Irrespective of S rate, fertilizer N reduced oil concentration and increased protein concentrationin canola seed. With S fertilization, yield, S uptake and N uptake of seed and straw, and total S concentration and oil concentration in seed were substantially increased, whereas there was no consistent change in protein concentration of seed. The response of these parameters to S application was generally greater at higher N rates. Sulphur and N uptake measured data indicated that significant N × S interaction effects were more frequent and pronounced for seed yield than for straw yield, indicating that the response to N rate was relatively more dependent on the S level for seed than for straw. In summary, the results suggest that an increased amount of S is needed on these S-deficient Gray Luvisol soils in northeastern Saskatchewan to adequately meet the S requirements at high N rates for optimum yield and quality of canola. Key words: Canola, N and S concentration and uptake, N and S fertilization, oil concentration, S-deficient soil, seed yield and quality

Comparing the nitrogen and phosphorus requirements of canola and wheat for grain yield and quality

2009 ◽  
Vol 60 (6) ◽  
pp. 566 ◽  
Author(s):  
R. F. Brennan ◽  
M. D. A. Bolland
Keyword(s):  
Grain Yield ◽  
Protein Concentration ◽  
Grain Production ◽  
Wheat Grain ◽  
Nitrogen And Phosphorus ◽  
Brassica Napus L ◽  
Crop Species ◽  
Oil Concentration ◽  
Four Levels ◽  
Yield Responses

Canola (oilseed rape, Brassica napus L.) is now grown in rotation with spring wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) on the predominantly sandy soils of south-western Australia. For both crop species, fertiliser nitrogen (N) and phosphorus (P) need to be applied for profitable grain production. The fertiliser N requirements have been determined separately for canola or wheat when adequate P was applied. By contrast, the fertiliser P requirements of the 2 species have been compared in the same experiment when adequate N was applied and showed that canola consistently required ~25–60% less P than wheat to produce 90% of the maximum grain yield. We report results of a field experiment conducted at 7 sites from 2000 to 2003 in the region to compare grain yield responses of canola and wheat to application of N and P in the same experiment. Four levels of N (0–138 kg N/ha as urea [46% N]) and 6 levels of P (0–40 kg P/ha as superphosphate [9.1%P]) were applied. Significant grain yield responses to applied N and P occurred for both crop species at all sites of the experiment, and the N × P interaction for grain production was always significant. To produce 90% of the maximum grain yield, canola required ~40% more N (range 16–75%) than wheat, and ~25% less P (range 12–43%) than wheat. For both crop species at 7 sites, applying increasing levels of N had no significant effect on the level of P required for 90% of maximum grain yield, although at 1 site the level of P required to achieve the target yield for both crop species when no N was applied (nil-N treatment) was significantly lower than for the other 3 treatments treated with N. For both crop species at all 7 sites, applying increasing levels of P increased the level of N required for 90% of the maximum grain yield. Fertiliser P had no significant effect on protein concentration in canola and wheat grain, and oil concentration in canola grain. As found in previous studies, application of increasing levels of N decreased oil concentration while increasing protein concentration in canola grain, and increased protein concentration in wheat grain. The N × P interaction was not significant for protein or oil concentration in grain. Protein concentrations in canola grain were about double those found in wheat grain.

Comparison of the effect of mur and nap cytoplasms on the performance of intercultivar summer rape hybrids

2004 ◽  
Vol 84 (3) ◽  
pp. 731-738 ◽  
Author(s):  
Teresio C. Riungu ◽  
Peter B. E. McVetty
Keyword(s):  
Brassica Napus ◽  
Cytoplasmic Male Sterility ◽  
Male Sterility ◽  
Protein Concentration ◽  
Hybrid Seed Production ◽  
Brassica Napus L ◽  
Oil Concentration ◽  
Good Potential ◽  
Biological Cost ◽  
Hybrid Group

The performance of six isogenic pairs of male fertility restored, hand-crossed, summer rape (Brassica napus L.) hybrids, in the mur and nap cytoplasms, were investigated in four Manitoba environments. Hybrids in both cytoplasms exhibited high-parent heterosis for seed yield, total dry matter (TDM) and, to a lesser degree, harvest index (HI). Negative high parent heterosis for days to flowering, days to maturity, oil concentration and protein concentration was observed. Combined over hybrids within cytoplasms, the mur and nap cytoplasmic hybrid groups differed in oil concentration in all environments, and in protein concentration in one of four environments. Similarly, the mur hybrid group was lower-yielding and had lower TDM, HI and oil concentration, but higher protein concentration than the nap hybrid group. Even though there are some biological costs associated with the mur cytoplasm, especially for oil concentration, it appears that the mur cytoplasmic male sterility (CMS) system has good potential for use in summer rape hybrid cultivar breeding and commercial hybrid seed production, since hybrids in the mur cytoplasm display heterosis for many traits in absolute terms. Key words: Biological cost, Brassica napus L., cytoplasmic male sterility, heterosis, hybrid

Cartier BX summer oilseed rape

2001 ◽  
Vol 81 (1) ◽  
pp. 105-106 ◽  
Author(s):  
S. R. Rimmer ◽  
R. Scarth ◽  
P. B. E. McVetty
Keyword(s):  
Brassica Napus ◽  
Key Words ◽  
Oilseed Rape ◽  
Protein Concentration ◽  
Western Canada ◽  
Blackleg Disease ◽  
Brassica Napus L ◽  
Oil Concentration ◽  
The Mean ◽  
Moderately Resistant

Cartier BX is the fourth in the Navigator® series of summer oilseed rape (Brassica napus L.) canola cultivars, which are resistant to Compas® herbicide, a mix of herbicides including the broadleaf herbicide bromoxynil. It is 32 kg ha–1 (1.3%) higher yielding than the mean of the check cultivars Defender, AC Excel and Legacy, is 5 g kg–1 lower in oil concentration and is 11 g kg–1 higher in protein concentration than the means of the check cultivars, respectively. Cartier BX is moderately resistant to blackleg disease. Cartier BX is adapted to the long- and mid-season B. napus canola-growing areas of western Canada. Key words: Oilseed rape (summer), bromoxynil resistance, Navigator® , Compas®

Plant density response and optimum crop densities for canola (Brassica napus L.) in Western Australia

2016 ◽  
Vol 67 (4) ◽  
pp. 397 ◽  
Author(s):  
R. J. French ◽  
M. Seymour ◽  
R. S. Malik
Keyword(s):  
Brassica Napus ◽  
Western Australia ◽  
Maximum Yield ◽  
Yield Potential ◽  
High Yield ◽  
Yield Response ◽  
Asymptotic Model ◽  
Brassica Napus L ◽  
Optimum Density ◽  
Crop Density

In 24 experiments conducted across a range of agricultural environments in Western Australia between 2010 and 2014 canola (Brassica napus L.) grain yield response to crop density was adequately described by an asymptotic model (where yield approaches but never quite reaches a ceiling at very high density) in 101 out of 112 individual responses; in the other 11 yield reached a maximum and declined slightly at higher densities. Seed oil was more likely to increase than decrease with increasing density but the effect was always small; less than 1% oil over the range of densities tested. Increasing density also suppressed annual ryegrass (Lolium rigidum (L.) Gaud.) head numbers in six experiments where it was measured, especially at densities below 20 plants/m². Economic optimum densities ranged from 7 to 180 plants/m², with a median of 32.2. Mean optima in low and medium rainfall zones (growing season rainfall <300 mm) were about 25, 30, and 75 plants/m² respectively for glyphosate-tolerant (Roundup Ready), hybrid triazine-tolerant (TT), and open-pollinated TT cultivars, assuming open-pollinated TT cultivars were grown from farm-saved seed. There was little difference between optimum densities for hybrid and open-pollinated glyphosate-tolerant cultivars, and optima in the high rainfall zone were about 10 plants/m² higher than in low and medium rainfall zones. Yield at optimum density was greater than 90% of maximum yield in 74% of cases. The economic penalty for not achieving the optimum density with hybrids was usually small if the deviation was less than 10 plants/m², and with open-pollinated TT cultivars was small even 50-60 plants/m² below the optimum. The penalty was usually greater for deviations below than above the optimum in medium and high yield potential environments (yield potential >1000 kg/ha). Predicted optima were more sensitive to seed cost and field establishment (the proportion of viable seeds that become established) than grain price or seed size over the range of values expected in Western Australian agriculture. Field establishment varied from 0.3 to 1 and was higher at low target densities and for hybrid compared with open-pollinated cultivars, with a median of 0.585 at a target density of 40 plants/m². We identified improving field establishment of canola as an important research priority.

Alternative oilseed crops for biodiesel feedstock on the Canadian prairies

2011 ◽  
Vol 91 (5) ◽  
pp. 889-896 ◽  
Author(s):  
Robert Blackshaw ◽  
Eric Johnson ◽  
Yantai Gan ◽  
William May ◽  
David McAndrew ◽  
...  
Keyword(s):  
Brassica Juncea ◽  
Yield Potential ◽  
Brassica Napus L ◽  
Canadian Prairies ◽  
Oilseed Crops ◽  
Yellow Mustard ◽  
Ethiopian Mustard ◽  
Biodiesel Feedstock ◽  
Oil Concentration ◽  
Oriental Mustard

Blackshaw, R. E., Johnson, E. N., Gan, Y., May, W. E., McAndrew, D. W., Barthet, V., McDonald, T. and Wispinski, D. 2011. Alternative oilseed crops for biodiesel feedstock on the Canadian prairies. Can. J. Plant Sci. 91: 889–896. Increased demand for biodiesel feedstock has encouraged greater napus canola (Brassica napus L.) production, but there may be a need for greater production of other oilseed crops for this purpose. A multi-site field study was conducted to determine the oil yield potential of various crops relative to that of napus canola in the semi-arid, short-season environment of the Canadian prairies. Oilseed crops evaluated included rapa canola (Brassica rapa L.), juncea canola (Brassica juncea L.), Ethiopian mustard (Brassica carinata L.), oriental mustard (Brassica juncea L.), yellow mustard (Sinapis alba L.), camelina (Camelina sativa L.), flax (Linum usitatissimum L.), and soybean [Glycine max (L.) Max.]. Crop emergence and growth were generally good for all crops, but soybean did not fully mature at some locations. The number of site-years (out of a total of 9) that crops attained similar or greater yields compared to napus canola were camelina (6), oriental mustard (5), juncea canola (3), flax (3), soybean (3), rapa canola (2), yellow mustard (2), and Ethiopian mustard (1). The ranking of seed oil concentration was napus canola=rapa canola= juncea canola=flax>camelina=oriental mustard>Ethiopian mustard>yellow mustard>soybean. Considering yield and oil concentration, the alternative oilseed crops exhibiting the most potential for biodiesel feedstock were camelina, flax, rapa canola and oriental mustard. Oils of all crops were easily converted to biodiesel and quality analyses indicated that all crops would be suitable for biodiesel feedstock with the addition of antioxidants that are routinely utilized in biodiesel fuels.

scholarly journals Influence of six successive annual applications of sulphur fertilizers on wheat in a wheat–canola rotation on a sulphur deficient soil

2009 ◽  
Vol 89 (4) ◽  
pp. 629-644 ◽  
Author(s):  
S S Malhi ◽  
J J Schoenau ◽  
C L Vera
Keyword(s):  
Ammonium Sulphate ◽  
Seed Yield ◽  
Protein Concentration ◽  
Seed Protein ◽  
Wheat Yield ◽  
Residual Effects ◽  
Straw Yield ◽  
S Uptake ◽  
Seed Protein Concentration ◽  
S Fertilizers

A 9-yr (1999–2007) field experiment was conducted on a S-deficient Gray Luvisol (Typic Cryoboralf) loam soil at Porcupine Plain in northeastern Saskatchewan. The objective was to compare the influence of six successive annual applications (1999–2004) and the following residual effects for 3 yr (2005–2007) of elemental S and sulphate-S fertilizers on yield, seed protein and total S concentration, and S uptake of wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) in a wheat–canola rotation. Treatments used were combinations of two application times (preceding autumn and before seeding in spring) with two granular elemental S fertilizers (ES-90 and ES-95), one fertilizer containing both elemental S and sulphate-S (Agrium Plus), ammonium sulphate, and a zero-S control. The S fertilizers were applied annually at a rate of 15 kg S ha–1. From 1999 to 2004, seed yield (3 yr) and straw yield (4 yr), seed protein concentration (3 yr), total S concentration in seed (4 yr), and S uptake in seed (5 yr) and straw (5 yr) of wheat showed significant response to S fertilization. In the first year (1999), ammonium sulphate and Agrium Plus were more effective than ES-90 and ES-95. In the following years (2000–2004), there was no significant effect of S source on seed and straw yield. Sulphate-S containing fertilizers produced greater total S concentration in seed and S uptake in straw (3 yr) and for S uptake in seed (1 yr). There was no effect of timing of S application on seed yield and protein concentration in any year, but autumn application was superior to spring application for straw yield and S uptake (1 yr), and for seed total S concentration and S uptake (2 yr). Residual effects of six previous S applications showed improvement in wheat seed yield until 2006, and straw yield and total S uptake until 2007. Elemental S, especially when applied in autumn, tended to have more lasting residual effects than the other S fertilizer treatments. There was some build-up of residual sulphate-S in soil in almost all S fertilizer treatments after four successive applications, but this was generally higher with sulphate-S-containing fertilizers. Recovery of applied S from 1999 to 2004 in plants was usually higher with sulphate-S fertilizer than with elemental S fertilizer in most years. Recovery of applied S in soil was higher for sulphate-S fertilizers, followed by ES-90, and finally ES-95. Residual nitrate-N in soil was significantly lower in spring-applied ammonium sulphate treatment than the zero-S or other S treatments. Key words: Elemental S, fertilizer, protein concentration, S uptake, sulphate-S, wheat, yield

Influence of genotype and environment on oil and protein concentrations of canola (Brassica napus L.) grown across southern Australia

2003 ◽  
Vol 54 (4) ◽  
pp. 397 ◽  
Author(s):  
Ping Si ◽  
Rodney J. Mailer ◽  
Nick Galwey ◽  
David W. Turner
Keyword(s):  
Brassica Napus ◽  
Variance Components ◽  
Protein Concentration ◽  
Genetic Variance ◽  
Seed Oil ◽  
Field Evaluation ◽  
Significant Negative Correlation ◽  
Brassica Napus L ◽  
Oil Concentration ◽  
The Relationship

Improvement of oil and protein concentrations is a primary breeding objective for canola (Brassica napus L.) grown in the low rainfall areas across southern Australia. This study investigates the relative influences of genotype and environment on the relationship between seed oil concentration and protein concentration of meal, and between seed components. The study also estimates the magnitude of genetic and genotype × environment variances in oil and protein concentrations in a set of interstate field evaluation experiments of genotypes with early and mid-season maturity conducted across southern Australia in 1996 and 1997.The oil concentration of seed ranged from 36 to 46% across maturity groups, locations, and years. The range of protein concentration of meal was 30–46%. Environment had a much larger impact than genotype on oil concentration of seed and protein concentration of meal. Several genotypes in this study had higher concentrations of oil in the seed and protein in the meal than the commercial cultivars used as controls. Significant (P < 0.05) genetic variance (σg2) and significant genotype × year × location interaction (σgyl2) was present in these 2 quality traits. However, the variance components for the interaction of genotype with location (σgl2) and with year (σgy2) were not significant (P > 0.05), indicating that ranking of genotypes remained constant across locations averaged over many years and across years averaged over many locations, respectively. A significant negative correlation (r�=�–0.73) between seed oil concentration and protein concentration of meal was observed across locations in 1997. Among the genotypes tested, there was no genetic correlation between these 2 traits, suggesting that seed oil concentration and protein concentration of meal can be increased simultaneously by selection. Increase in oil concentration of seed and protein concentration of meal was at the expense of seed residue.

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