scholarly journals Use of corn distillers’ dried grains to reduce enteric methane loss from beef cattle

2009 ◽  
Vol 89 (3) ◽  
pp. 409-413 ◽  
Author(s):  
S M McGinn ◽  
Y -H Chung ◽  
K A Beauchemin ◽  
A D Iwaasa ◽  
C Grainger
Keyword(s):  
Beef Cattle ◽  
Dry Matter ◽  
Barley Grain ◽  
Feedlot Cattle ◽  
Sulphur Hexafluoride ◽  
Distillers Dried Grains ◽  
Enteric Methane ◽  
Gross Energy ◽  
Corn Distillers ◽  
The Impact

There are significant emissions of greenhouse gases (GHG) from agriculture, and a major source is enteric methane (CH4) from ruminants. Our study reports the impact on enteric CH4 emissions when barley grain (35% of the dietary dry matter (DM) was replaced by corn distillers’ dried grains with solubles (DDGS, adding 30 g fat kg-1 dietary DM) in the backgrounding diet of growing beef cattle. The addition of DDGS reduced CH4 emissions (g d-1) by 19.9%, and by 16.4% when adjusted for DM intake [g (DM intake)-1] or by 23.9% when adjusted for gross energy (GE) intake (% of GE intake). Adding DDGS to cattle diets reduced CH4 emissions, but the effects of higher N content of the manure on emissions of nitrous oxide and ammonia need to be accounted for to complete the evaluation of the environmental impact of feeding DDGS to feedlot cattle. Key words: Methane, beef cattle, corn distillers’ dried grains with solubles, lipid, greenhouse gas emissions, sulphur hexafluoride

Optimal dose of 3-nitrooxypropanol for decreasing enteric methane emissions from beef cattle fed high-forage and high-grain diets

2018 ◽  
Vol 58 (6) ◽  
pp. 1049 ◽  
Author(s):  
D. Vyas ◽  
S. M. McGinn ◽  
S. M. Duval ◽  
M. K. Kindermann ◽  
K. A. Beauchemin
Keyword(s):  
Beef Cattle ◽  
Energy Intake ◽  
Dry Matter ◽  
Optimal Dose ◽  
Negative Effects ◽  
Ch4 Emissions ◽  
Ch4 Production ◽  
Enteric Methane ◽  
Gross Energy ◽  
High Forage

The objective of the present study was to determine the dose response of the methane (CH4) inhibitor 3-nitrooxypropanol (NOP) on enteric CH4 production and dry matter intake (DMI) for beef cattle fed a high-forage or high-grain diet. Fifteen crossbred yearling steers were used in two consecutive studies (high-forage backgrounding, high-grain finishing), each designed as an incomplete block with two 28-day periods with a 7-day washout in between and treatments corresponding to six doses of NOP (0 (Control), 50, 75, 100, 150, 200 mg/kg DM). The NOP was provided in the ration daily with the dose increased gradually over the first 10 days of each period. No treatment effects were observed on overall DMI or DMI of cattle when they were in the chambers either for the high-forage (P ≥ 0.54) or high-grain (P ≥ 0.26) diet. With the high-forage diet, NOP supplementation lowered total CH4 emissions (g/day) (P = 0.05), with the response at 200 mg NOP/kg DM different from Control (P < 0.05). Similarly, CH4 emissions corrected for DMI (g/kg DMI) and as a percentage of gross energy intake were linearly reduced in the high-forage diet with supplemental NOP (P < 0.01) and responses observed at 100, 150 and 200 mg NOP/kg DM differed from Control (P < 0.05). For the high-grain diet, total CH4 emissions decreased with incremental increases in the concentration of NOP supplemented (P = 0.04) and responses observed at 150 and 200 mg/kg DM differed from Control. Similarly, linear responses were observed with CH4 emissions corrected for DMI (P = 0.04) and gross energy intake (P = 0.02), with 100–200 mg NOP/kg DM differing from Control. Overall, results from the present study demonstrated that for beef cattle fed high-forage and high-grain diets, supplementation of 100–200 mg NOP/kg DM lowered enteric CH4 emissions without inducing any negative effects on DMI.

Quality and precision processing of barley grain affected intake and digestibility of dry matter in feedlot steers

2013 ◽  
Vol 93 (2) ◽  
pp. 251-260 ◽  
Author(s):  
W. Z. Yang ◽  
M. Oba ◽  
T. A. McAllister
Keyword(s):  
Digestive Tract ◽  
Dry Matter ◽  
Latin Square ◽  
Barley Grain ◽  
Feedlot Cattle ◽  
Ruminal Ph ◽  
Feedlot Steers ◽  
Acid Detergent Fibre ◽  
Barley Silage ◽  
The Impact

Yang, W. Z., Oba, M. and McAllister, T. A. 2013. Quality and precision processing of barley grain affected intake and digestibility of dry matter in feedlot steers. Can. J. Anim. Sci. 93: 251–260. A study was conducted to determine the impact of barley quality and precision processing to account for the impact of variable kernel uniformity on ruminal pH and fermentation, and digestibility in the digestive tract of steers. Eight ruminally cannulated steers were used in a replicated 4×4 Latin square experiment. The four diets consisted of light-weight barley (LB) precision-processed with roller setting based on kernel size; heavy-weight barley (HB) precision-processed; LB and HB grain mixed equal parts then processed at a single roller setting (CON); or LB and HB precision-processed and mixed equal parts (PP). The diets consisted of 10% barley silage and 90% concentrate [dry matter (DM) basis]. Dry matter intake by steers fed LB was greater (P=0.04) than by steers fed HB. Intakes of DM and other nutrients were greater (P=0.04) for steers fed PP than for steers fed CON. There were no differences (P>0.14) in ruminal pH and fermentation among treatments. Digestibility of DM in the total digestive tract tended (P=0.06) to be less with LB than with HB. Precision processing increased digestibility of crude proteion (P=0.04) and acid detergent fibre (P=0.06) resulting in a trend (P=0.10) towards increasing organic matter digestibility as compared with CON. The results suggest that screening of blended barley into more uniform fractions and precision processing of each fraction could increase intake of digestible nutrients for feedlot cattle.

Impact of four fiber-rich supplements on nutrient digestibility, colostrum production, and farrowing performance in sows

2021 ◽  
Vol 99 (9) ◽  
Author(s):  
Takele Feyera ◽  
Liang Hu ◽  
Maria Eskildsen ◽  
Thomas S Bruun ◽  
Peter K Theil
Keyword(s):  
Dry Matter ◽  
Palm Kernel ◽  
Nutrient Digestibility ◽  
Extra Energy ◽  
Lower Blood ◽  
Nonstarch Polysaccharides ◽  
Gross Energy ◽  
Soy Hulls ◽  
Beet Pulp ◽  
The Impact

Abstract This study aimed to investigate the impact of dietary fiber (DF) sources on sow and litter performance, and apparent total tract digestibility (ATTD) of gross energy (GE) and nutrients. A total of 48 sows were stratified for body weight at mating and randomly assigned to one of four DF sources (mixed fiber [MF], palm kernel expellers [PKE], sugar beet pulp [SBP], or soy hulls [SH]) and fed the diet from mating until farrowing. Within DF treatments, sows were supplemented with one of two extra energy sources (glycerol or sugar dissolved in water), whereas a third group (control) received water from day 108 of gestation until farrowing. The number of total born, live-born, and stillborn pigs; birth time and birth weight of the pigs; farrowing duration; and farrowing assistance (FA) were recorded. Live-born pigs were weighed again at 12 and 24 h after birth to record weight gain, which was used to estimate intake and yield of colostrum. Blood samples were collected once daily from day −3 relative to farrowing until day 1 after farrowing in sows and once from selected pigs right after birth. Fecal samples were collected on day 114 of gestation and colostrum at 0, 12, 24, and 36 h after onset of farrowing. Intake of soluble and insoluble nonstarch polysaccharides (NSP) was greater for SBP (P &lt; 0.001) and PKE (P &lt; 0.001) supplemented sows, respectively, when compared with other groups. Farrowing duration and stillbirth rate were not affected by DF sources, but PKE and SH supplemented sows had greater FA than SBP and MF supplemented sows (P &lt; 0.001). Extra energy supplement did not improve the farrowing performance. Concentration (P = 0.02) and output (P = 0.04) of dry matter in colostrum, and ATTD of GE (P &lt; 0.001) and crude protein (CP; P &lt; 0.001) were lower for PKE supplemented sows than in sows from the remaining groups. Intake of insoluble NSP correlated negatively with ATTD of GE (P &lt; 0.001) and CP (P &lt; 0.001). Concentrations of glucose (P &lt; 0.001), lactate (P &lt; 0.001), CO2 (P &lt; 0.001), and HCO3 (P &lt; 0.001) in sows blood were increased with time progress relative to farrowing. Newborn pigs from PKE supplemented sows had greater concentration of lactate (P = 0.02) and lower blood pH (P = 0.02) than the remaining treatments. In conclusion, PKE supplement reduced ATTD of GE and CP, and concentration and output of dry matter in colostrum but increased FA. Results of this experiment indicated that the use of PKE as a fiber source for late gestating sows should be avoided.

scholarly journals Effects of copper hydroxychloride and distillers dried grains with solubles on intestinal microbial concentration and apparent ileal and total tract digestibility of energy and nutrients by growing pigs1

2019 ◽  
Vol 97 (12) ◽  
pp. 4904-4911 ◽  
Author(s):  
Charmaine D Espinosa ◽  
R Scott Fry ◽  
Matthew E Kocher ◽  
Hans H Stein
Keyword(s):  
Large Intestine ◽  
Soybean Meal ◽  
Crude Protein ◽  
Dry Matter ◽  
Total Concentration ◽  
Nutrient Digestibility ◽  
Ether Extract ◽  
Microbial Protein ◽  
Distillers Dried Grains ◽  
Gross Energy

Abstract An experiment was conducted to test the hypothesis that Cu hydroxychloride improves nutrient digestibility and alters the concentration of microbial protein in the small intestine or large intestine by pigs fed a corn-soybean meal diet or a diet based on corn, soybean meal, and distillers dried grains with solubles (DDGS). Twenty-four barrows (33.3 ± 3.4 kg) that had a T-cannula installed in the distal ileum were allotted to a 2 × 2 factorial design with 2 levels of DDGS (0% or 45%) and 2 levels of supplemental Cu from Cu hydroxychloride (0 or 150 mg/kg). A 2-period switch back design with the 4 diets and 6 replicate pigs per diet in each period was used resulting in 12 replicate pigs per diet for the 2 periods. The initial 9 d of each period was considered an adaptation period to the experimental diets. For each period, feces were collected on days 10, 11, and 12, and ileal digesta were collected for 8 h on days 13 and 14. Results indicated that inclusion of 45% DDGS to diets reduced (P &lt; 0.05) the apparent ileal digestibility (AID) of AA and the AID and the apparent total tract digestibility (ATTD) of dry matter, gross energy, and crude protein. In contrast, inclusion of DDGS to diets increased (P &lt; 0.05) the AID and the ATTD of acid hydrolyzed ether extract and the concentration of microbial protein in the hindgut (P &lt; 0.05). However, the total concentration of volatile fatty acids (VFA) in ileal digesta and in feces from pigs fed the DDGS diets were not different from concentrations in pigs fed diets without DDGS. The AID and ATTD of dry matter, gross energy, and crude protein were not affected by dietary Cu concentrations, but the AID and ATTD of acid hydrolyzed ether extract were greater (P &lt; 0.05) in diets supplemented with Cu hydroxychloride compared with diets without Cu hydroxychloride. There was also a reduction (P &lt; 0.05) in the concentration of microbial protein and a tendency for a reduction (P &lt; 0.10) in the total concentration of VFA in feces when diets were supplemented with Cu hydroxychloride. In conclusion, supplementation of Cu hydroxychloride to diets improved AID and ATTD of acid hydrolyzed ether extract and reduced the concentration of microbial protein in the large intestine and this effect was observed in diets containing DDGS as well as in diets without DDGS.

scholarly journals Optimum roughage proportion in barley-based feedlot cattle diets: growth performance, feeding behavior, and carcass traits

2020 ◽  
Vol 98 (10) ◽  
Author(s):  
Karen M Koenig ◽  
Gwinyai E Chibisa ◽  
Gregory B Penner ◽  
Karen A Beauchemin
Keyword(s):  
Feeding Behavior ◽  
Growth Performance ◽  
Dry Matter ◽  
Carcass Traits ◽  
Barley Grain ◽  
Feedlot Cattle ◽  
Experimental Unit ◽  
Finishing Diets ◽  
Ruminal Acidosis ◽  
Barley Silage

Abstract High grain diets are fed to finishing beef cattle to maximize animal performance in a cost-effective manner. However, a small amount of roughage is incorporated in finishing diets to help prevent ruminal acidosis, although few studies have examined optimum roughage inclusion level in barley-based diets. The objective of the study was to evaluate the effects of roughage proportion in barley-based finishing diets on growth performance, feeding behavior, and carcass traits of feedlot cattle. Crossbred beef steers (n = 160; mean body weight ± SD, 349.7 ± 21.4 kg) were allocated to 20 pens that were assigned randomly to four dietary treatments (five pens of eight steers per treatment). The treatment diets contained barley silage at 0%, 4%, 8%, and 12% of dietary dry matter (DM). The remainder of the diets (DM basis) consisted of 80%, 76%, 72%, and 68% barley grain, respectively, 15% corn dried distiller’s grains, 5% mineral and vitamin supplement, and 32 mg monensin/kg diet DM. The diets were fed as total mixed rations for ad libitum intake (minimum of 5% refusal) once per day. Cattle were weighed on 2 consecutive days at the start and end of the experiment and on 1 d every 3 wk throughout the experiment (124 d). Two pens for each treatment group were equipped with an electronic feeding system (GrowSafe Systems Ltd., Calgary, Alberta) to monitor feed intake and feeding behavior of individual cattle. The data for dry matter intake (DMI), average daily gain (ADG), gain:feed (G:F) ratio, and carcass traits were analyzed as a completely randomized design with fixed effect of barley silage proportion and pen replicate as experimental unit. Feeding behavior data were analyzed similarly, but with animal as experimental unit. Averaged over the study, DMI increased linearly (11.1, 11.3, 11.7, 11.8 kg/d; P = 0.001) as barley silage proportion increased from 0%, 4%, 8%, and 12% of DM, but ADG was not affected (carcass-adjusted,1.90, 1.85, 1.87, 1.89 kg/d; P ≥ 0.30). Consequently, G:F ratio decreased linearly (carcass-adjusted, 168.9, 163.8, 158.5, 160.6 g/kg DMI; P = 0.023). When averaged over the study, proportion of barley silage in the diet had no linear or quadratic effects (P &gt; 0.10) on meal frequency, duration of meals, intermeal duration, or meal size, but eating rate decreased linearly with increasing silage proportion (P = 0.008). There was no diet effect on liver abscesses (P ≥ 0.92), and effects on carcass characteristics were minor or nonexistent. We conclude that increasing the proportion of barley silage in a feedlot finishing diet at the expense of barley grain to minimize the incidence of ruminal acidosis may decrease feed conversion efficiency.

INFLUENCE OF HIGH-MOISTURE BARLEY ON THE PERFORMANCE AND CARCASS CHARACTERISTICS OF FEEDLOT CATTLE

1988 ◽  
Vol 68 (3) ◽  
pp. 811-820 ◽  
Author(s):  
J. J. KENNELLY ◽  
G. W. MATHISON ◽  
G. de BOER
Keyword(s):  
Dry Matter ◽  
Free Choice ◽  
Average Daily Gain ◽  
Carcass Characteristics ◽  
Barley Grain ◽  
Feedlot Cattle ◽  
Feed Conversion ◽  
High Moisture ◽  
Feeding Value ◽  
Daily Gain

Three factorial experiments were conducted to determine the relative feeding value of dry barley (DB) and high-moisture barley (HMB), and to evaluate the influence of method of ensiling (Pit vs. Harvestore® (HAV) silo), source of roughage (hay vs. silage), and level of concentrate (90 vs. 75%) on the performance and carcass characteristics of feedlot cattle. In exp. 1, 252 steers (initial wt 357 kg) were assigned on the basis of weight to six treatments (two pens × 21 animals per pen). A mixed diet consisting of 85.2% barley grain (dry matter (DM) basis) was offered free choice. The barley portion of the ration consisted of either 0, 25, 50, 75 or 100% DB with the balance being HMB from a pit silo. The sixth treatment consisted of feeding 100% HMB for the first 57 d and 100% DB for the remainder of the trial. Overall average daily gain (ADG) for steers fed 100% DB (1.70 kg d−1) was significantly higher than observed for animals fed 100, 75 or 50% HMB (1.46, 1.49 and 1.56 kg d−1, respectively). The kg of feed DM required per kg gain (FC) varied between 5.76 and 7.13 and was not (P > 0.05) influenced by treatment. No differences (P > 0.05) were observed in carcass characteristics. In exp. 2, 360 steers (initial wt 340 kg) were allotted on the basis of weight to six treatments designed to evaluate the effect of source (Pit vs. HAV) and level of HMB, in diets containing 10.2% silage, on animal performance. Overall ADG (1.11 – 1.17 kg d−1), FC (6.66 – 7.01) and carcass characteristics were similar (P > 0.05) for animals fed Pit HMB, HAV HMB and DB. In exp. 3, 264 weanling calves (initial wt 216 kg) were allotted on the basis of weight to six treatments which differed in type of barley (HMB vs. DB), source of roughage (hay vs. silage) and level of concentrate (75 vs. 90%; DM basis). The feeding period was 127 d. Daily gains varied between 0.78 and 0.91 kg d−1 and FC ranged from 6.40 to 7.10 and were not influenced (P > 0.05) by source of barley or source or level of roughage. While animals fed DB had significantly higher ADG than those fed HMB in exp. 1, the overall results from the three experiments indicate that on a DM basis HMB has similar feeding value to DB, and that there is no major difference between Pit and HAV-stored HMB for feedlot cattle. Key words: High moisture, barley, cattle, gain, feed conversion

scholarly journals Implications of Growing Biofuel Demands on Northeast Livestock Feed Costs

2009 ◽  
Vol 38 (2) ◽  
pp. 200-212 ◽  
Author(s):  
Todd M. Schmit ◽  
Leslie Verteramo ◽  
William G. Tomek
Keyword(s):  
Commodity Prices ◽  
Cost Savings ◽  
Distillers Dried Grains ◽  
Livestock Feed ◽  
Feed Costs ◽  
Corn Distillers ◽  
The Impact ◽  
The Relationship

The relationship between complete-feed prices and ingredient prices is estimated in order to analyze the effect of higher commodity prices on feed costs, with particular attention paid to the substitutability of corn distillers dried grains with solubles (DDGS). Using the historical price correlation between corn and DDGS, each $1 per ton increase in the price of corn increases feed costs between $0.45 and $0.59 per ton across livestock sectors. Marginal feed costs based on lower forecasted price correlations are reduced between $0.05 to $0.12 per ton across livestock sectors, but only for the dairy ration is the reduction statistically significant. Overall, DDGS cost savings are relatively limited and insufficient to offset the impact of other higher-priced feedstocks.

scholarly journals PSXI-29 Assessing enteric methane emissions from Nellore and Angus-Nellore crossbred cattle in a tropical, intensive beef cattle production system

2019 ◽  
Vol 97 (Supplement_3) ◽  
pp. 380-381
Author(s):  
Isabella Cristina F Maciel ◽  
Fabiano A Barbosa ◽  
Thierry R Tomich ◽  
Ramon C Alvarenga ◽  
Ludhiana R Ferreira ◽  
...  
Keyword(s):  
Beef Cattle ◽  
Sulfur Hexafluoride ◽  
Methane Emissions ◽  
Ch4 Production ◽  
Trial Onset ◽  
Enteric Methane ◽  
Grazing Period ◽  
Tropical Climates ◽  
The Impact ◽  
Enteric Methane Emissions

Abstract Crossbreeding has been used to improve performance in beef cattle; however, the effects of breed composition on methane production, yield and intensity from cattle in a tropical intensive system remain unknown. To assess the impact of breed composition on enteric methane emissions, Nellore (NE; yr 1: BW = 171.5 ± 19.4 kg; n = 10; yr 2: BW = 215.8 ± 32.3 kg, n = 25) and Angus-Nellore crossbred (AN; yr 1: BW = 214.2 ± 26.4 kg, n = 10; yr 2: BW = 242.5 ± 32.2 kg, n = 25) were compared. At trial onset, 10 mo old steers grazed Megathyrsus maximus ‘Mombaça’ in the grazing period (GP) and then were finished in a feedlot (FL) (35:65% corn silage:concentrate diet). Steers (n = 8) from each breed composition were randomly selected in GP and FL to measure CH4 production using a sulfur hexafluoride technique and DMI using titanium dioxide. The NE produced 19% less CH4 than AN in GP (17.21 vs 21.17 kg, P &lt; 0.01), and no difference was observed in FL (22.34 vs 22.67 kg, P &gt; 0.10). However, in FL, NE had greater CH4 intensity (CH4/ADG) compared to AN (122.76 vs 97.49 g/kg, P &lt; 0.01). Furthermore, CH4/carcass weight was greater for NE than AN (0.079 vs 0.067 g/kg CW, P &lt; 0.01). Breed composition did not influence CH4 yield (CH4/DMI) in either phase. The percentage CH4/GEI (Ym) for GP was higher for AN than NE (4.5 vs 3.8%), but lower than the IPCC recommended Ym of 6.5%. In FL, Ym was similar between breed composition (5.0%) and greater than the IPCC Ym of 3%. In our study the introduction of Angus into Nellore has potential to reduce CH4 intensity in tropical climates, resulting in less methane emission per kg beef produced.

Enteric methane emissions, intake, and performance of young Nellore bulls fed different sources of forage in concentrate-rich diets containing crude glycerine

2018 ◽  
Vol 58 (3) ◽  
pp. 517 ◽  
Author(s):  
A. F. Ribeiro ◽  
J. D. Messana ◽  
A. José Neto ◽  
J. F. Lage ◽  
G. Fiorentini ◽  
...  
Keyword(s):  
Sugarcane Bagasse ◽  
Dry Matter ◽  
Methane Emissions ◽  
Crude Glycerine ◽  
Corn Silage ◽  
Enteric Methane ◽  
Gross Energy ◽  
And Performance ◽  
Different Sources ◽  
Enteric Methane Emissions

Forty young Nellore bulls were used to determine the effects of different sources of forage in concentrate-rich diets containing crude glycerine on feed intake, performance, and enteric methane emissions. Ten animals (397 ± 34 kg and 20 ± 2 months of age) were slaughtered to estimate the initial carcass weights, and the remaining 30 animals (417 ± 24.7) were randomly assigned to three treatments with 10 replicates. The treatments consisted of three different sources of forage [NDF from forage (fNDF) was fixed 15% of dry matter]; corn silage, sugarcane, and sugarcane bagasse; in diets rich in concentrates with 10% dry matter crude glycerine. There were no differences in the intake of dry matter, organic matter, crude protein, neutral detergent fibre, gross energy, or metabolisable energy. No effects of the type of forage were observed on performance or enteric methane emissions. These results suggest that alternatives to corn silage that have high fibre content, such as sugarcane and sugarcane bagasse, do not significantly affect the intake, performance, or enteric methane emissions of young Nellore bulls.

scholarly journals Wieloletnie użytkowanie ślazowca pensylwańskiego – wartościowego źródła biomasy

2021 ◽  
Vol 76 (1) ◽  
pp. 97-116
Author(s):  
Roman Molas ◽  
Halina Borkowska ◽  
Barbara Sawicka
Keyword(s):  
Vegetative Propagation ◽  
Dry Matter ◽  
Energy Yield ◽  
Critical Question ◽  
Biomass Feedstocks ◽  
Wide Range ◽  
Gross Energy ◽  
Propagation Methods ◽  
The Impact

Next-generation biomass feedstocks are needed to optimize sustainability in a wide range of soils and climates. Species that has been recently noticed in Europe is Virginia fanpetals (Sida hermaphrodita L. Rusby). A critical question with research of this species is its field propagation. A long-term (2003–2012), field experiment was conducted to determine the impact of propagation method on yields and productivity this species. The hypothesis was higher yields of S. hermaphrodita biomass from vegetative propagations than from generative propagations, also over the long term. On average, from first 10 years of lifespan of Virginia fanpetals (2003–2012), biomass dry matter (DM) yields were significantly higher by vegetative propagation (16.8 Mg ha–1) as for generative (10.9 Mg ha–1). The average gross energy yield obtained by the vegetative propagation reached 304 GJ ha–1 while by the generative propagation was 196 GJ ha–1. The determined heat of combustion reached 18.1 GJ Mg–1 DM, the ash content was 28 g kg–1, and the nitrogen (N), sulphur (S), and chlorine (Cl) contents were 1.9 g kg–1, 0.52 g kg–1 and 0.23 g kg–1, respectively, regardless of propagation methods.

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