scholarly journals The Expression of Potato Expansin A3 (StEXPA3) and Extensin4 (StEXT4) Genes with Distribution of StEXPAs and HRGPs-Extensin Changes as an Effect of Cell Wall Rebuilding in Two Types of PVYNTN–Solanum tuberosum Interactions

Viruses ◽  
2020 ◽  
Vol 12 (1) ◽  
pp. 66 ◽  
Author(s):  
Katarzyna Otulak-Kozieł ◽  
Edmund Kozieł ◽  
Benham E. L. Lockhart ◽  
Józef J. Bujarski
Keyword(s):  
Cell Wall ◽  
Hypersensitive Response ◽  
Potato Plant ◽  
Plant Cell Wall ◽  
Dynamic Structure ◽  
Ultrastructural Localization ◽  
Wall Structure ◽  
Plant Interactions ◽  
Biotic And Abiotic Stress ◽  
Associated Proteins

The plant cell wall acts not only as a physical barrier, but also as a complex and dynamic structure that actively changes under different biotic and abiotic stress conditions. The question is, how are the different cell wall compounds modified during different interactions with exogenous stimuli such as pathogens? Plants exposed to viral pathogens respond to unfavorable conditions on multiple levels. One challenge that plants face under viral stress is the number of processes required for differential cell wall remodeling. The key players in these conditions are the cell wall genes and proteins, which can be regulated in specific ways during the interactions and have direct influences on the rebuilding of the cell wall structure. The cell wall modifications occurring in plants during viral infection remain poorly described. Therefore, this study focuses on cell wall dynamics as an effect of incompatible interactions between the potato virus Y (PVYNTN) and resistant potatoes (hypersensitive plant), as well as compatible (susceptible plant) interactions. Our analysis describes, for the first time, the expression of the potato expansin A3 (StEXPA3) and potato extensin 4 (StEXT4) genes in PVYNTN-susceptible and -resistant potato plant interactions. The results indicated a statistically significant induction of the StEXPA3 gene during a susceptible response. By contrast, we demonstrated the predominantly gradual activation of the StEXT4 gene during the hypersensitive response to PVYNTN inoculation. Moreover, the in situ distributions of expansins (StEXPAs), which are essential cell wall-associated proteins, and the hydroxyproline-rich glycoprotein (HRGP) extensin were investigated in two types of interactions. Furthermore, cell wall loosening was accompanied by an increase in StEXPA deposition in a PVYNTN-susceptible potato, whereas the HRGP content dynamically increased during the hypersensitive response, when the cell wall was reinforced. Ultrastructural localization and quantification revealed that the HRGP extensin was preferably located in the apoplast, but deposition in the symplast was also observed in resistant plants. Interestingly, during the hypersensitive response, StEXPA proteins were mainly located in the symplast area, in contrast to the susceptible potato where StEXPA proteins were mainly observed in the cell wall. These findings revealed that changes in the intracellular distribution and abundance of StEXPAs and HRGPs can be differentially regulated, depending on different types of PVYNTN–potato plant interactions, and confirmed the involvement of apoplast and symplast activation as a defense response mechanism.

scholarly journals The Role of Arabinogalactan Type II Degradation in Plant-Microbe Interactions

2021 ◽  
Vol 12 ◽  
Author(s):  
Maria Guadalupe Villa-Rivera ◽  
Horacio Cano-Camacho ◽  
Everardo López-Romero ◽  
María Guadalupe Zavala-Páramo
Keyword(s):  
Cell Wall ◽  
Plant Defense ◽  
Plant Cell ◽  
Plant Cell Wall ◽  
Degradation Products ◽  
Hydrolytic Enzymes ◽  
Pathogenic Fungi ◽  
Plant Interactions ◽  
Root Tips ◽  
Microbe Interactions

Arabinogalactans (AGs) are structural polysaccharides of the plant cell wall. A small proportion of the AGs are associated with hemicellulose and pectin. Furthermore, AGs are associated with proteins forming the so-called arabinogalactan proteins (AGPs), which can be found in the plant cell wall or attached through a glycosylphosphatidylinositol (GPI) anchor to the plasma membrane. AGPs are a family of highly glycosylated proteins grouped with cell wall proteins rich in hydroxyproline. These glycoproteins have important and diverse functions in plants, such as growth, cellular differentiation, signaling, and microbe-plant interactions, and several reports suggest that carbohydrate components are crucial for AGP functions. In beneficial plant-microbe interactions, AGPs attract symbiotic species of fungi or bacteria, promote the development of infectious structures and the colonization of root tips, and furthermore, these interactions can activate plant defense mechanisms. On the other hand, plants secrete and accumulate AGPs at infection sites, creating cross-links with pectin. As part of the plant cell wall degradation machinery, beneficial and pathogenic fungi and bacteria can produce the enzymes necessary for the complete depolymerization of AGs including endo-β-(1,3), β-(1,4) and β-(1,6)-galactanases, β-(1,3/1,6) galactanases, α-L-arabinofuranosidases, β-L-arabinopyranosidases, and β-D-glucuronidases. These hydrolytic enzymes are secreted during plant-pathogen interactions and could have implications for the function of AGPs. It has been proposed that AGPs could prevent infection by pathogenic microorganisms because their degradation products generated by hydrolytic enzymes of pathogens function as damage-associated molecular patterns (DAMPs) eliciting the plant defense response. In this review, we describe the structure and function of AGs and AGPs as components of the plant cell wall. Additionally, we describe the set of enzymes secreted by microorganisms to degrade AGs from AGPs and its possible implication for plant-microbe interactions.

scholarly journals Hypersensitive Responses in Plants

2019 ◽  
Author(s):  
Ankita Thakur ◽  
Shalini Verma ◽  
Vedukola P Reddy ◽  
Deepika Sharma
Keyword(s):  
Cell Death ◽  
Cell Wall ◽  
Hypersensitive Response ◽  
Plant Cell Wall ◽  
Defense Mechanism ◽  
Avirulence Gene ◽  
Signal Molecules ◽  
Dead Cell ◽  
Natural Defense ◽  
Molecular Patterns

Hypersensitivity is a natural defense for plants in response to a variety of pathogens such as viruses, bacteria, fungi and is characterized by a programmed cell death (PCD) accompanied by an accumulation of toxic compounds within the dead cell. Hypersensitive response (HR) is considered a biochemical reaction rather than a structural defense mechanism but can be seen with the naked eye or with a microscope. There are two types of hypersensitive responses: structural and induced. PCD is seen in both structural as well as in induced hypersensitive response. PCD is extreme resistance shown by the plants in which it kills its cells (suicidal death), upon a perception of the pathogen to deprive it of nutritional supply and stops its growth. Cell death plays a central role in innate immune responses in both plants and animals. Apoptosis and autophagy are physiological processes and two forms of biochemical PCD. Induced hypersensitive response comes out when the plant recognizes specific pathogen-produced signal molecules known as elicitors. Recognition of elicitors by the host plants activates an army of biochemical reactions. These reactions include an oxidative burst of reactive oxygen species (ROS), alterations in plant cell wall also including cell wall immunity (CWI) and damage-associated molecular patterns (DAMPs), induction of phytoalexins and synthesis of PR proteins. These all, are comprised under the first line of defense of plants which come into action after recognition of conserved molecules characteristic of many microbes. These are called elicitors and are known as microbeassociated or pathogen-associated molecular patterns (MAMPs or PAMPs). The second line of defense of plants is the recognition of effectors through plant resistance gene products known as R genes, which result in effector-triggered immunity (ETI). This is supported by the gene for gene hypothesis. Avirulence gene encodes a protein which is specifically recognized by genotypes of the host plant harboring the matching resistance genes.

scholarly journals Novel tool to quantify cell wall porosity relates wall structure to cell growth and drug uptake

2019 ◽  
Vol 218 (4) ◽  
pp. 1408-1421 ◽  
Author(s):  
Xiaohui Liu ◽  
Jiazhou Li ◽  
Heyu Zhao ◽  
Boyang Liu ◽  
Thomas Günther-Pomorski ◽  
...  
Keyword(s):  
Cell Wall ◽  
Cell Walls ◽  
Dynamic Structure ◽  
Cell Types ◽  
Antifungal Drugs ◽  
Drug Uptake ◽  
Wall Structure ◽  
Quenching Efficiency ◽  
Model Plant Arabidopsis Thaliana ◽  
Cell Wall Porosity

Even though cell walls have essential functions for bacteria, fungi, and plants, tools to investigate their dynamic structure in living cells have been missing. Here, it is shown that changes in the intensity of the plasma membrane dye FM4-64 in response to extracellular quenchers depend on the nano-scale porosity of cell walls. The correlation of quenching efficiency and cell wall porosity is supported by tests on various cell types, application of differently sized quenchers, and comparison of results with confocal, electron, and atomic force microscopy images. The quenching assay was used to investigate how changes in cell wall porosity affect the capability for extension growth in the model plant Arabidopsis thaliana. Results suggest that increased porosity is not a precondition but a result of cell extension, thereby providing new insight on the mechanism plant organ growth. Furthermore, it was shown that higher cell wall porosity can facilitate the action of antifungal drugs in Saccharomyces cerevisiae, presumably by facilitating uptake.

scholarly journals Catalysts of plant cell wall loosening

F1000Research ◽  
2016 ◽  
Vol 5 ◽  
pp. 119 ◽  
Author(s):  
Daniel J. Cosgrove
Keyword(s):  
Cell Wall ◽  
Plant Cell Wall ◽  
Turgor Pressure ◽  
Wall Stress ◽  
Primary Cell Wall ◽  
Wall Structure ◽  
Xyloglucan Endotransglycosylase ◽  
Growing Cell ◽  
Tensile Forces ◽  
Wall Loosening

The growing cell wall in plants has conflicting requirements to be strong enough to withstand the high tensile forces generated by cell turgor pressure while selectively yielding to those forces to induce wall stress relaxation, leading to water uptake and polymer movements underlying cell wall expansion. In this article, I review emerging concepts of plant primary cell wall structure, the nature of wall extensibility and the action of expansins, family-9 and -12 endoglucanases, family-16 xyloglucan endotransglycosylase/hydrolase (XTH), and pectin methylesterases, and offer a critical assessment of their wall-loosening activity

scholarly journals Three-Dimensional Imaging of Plant Cell Wall Deconstruction Using Fluorescence Confocal Microscopy

2020 ◽  
Vol 1 (2) ◽  
pp. 75-85
Author(s):  
Aya Zoghlami ◽  
Yassin Refahi ◽  
Christine Terryn ◽  
Gabriel Paës
Keyword(s):  
Cell Wall ◽  
Enzymatic Hydrolysis ◽  
Plant Cell Wall ◽  
Enzymatic Reaction ◽  
Time Lapse ◽  
Quantitative Information ◽  
Image Resolution ◽  
Wall Structure ◽  
Hydrolysis Time ◽  
Fluorescence Confocal Microscopy

Lignocellulosic biomass (LB) is recalcitrant to enzymatic hydrolysis due to its compact and complex cell wall structure. To identify the parameters behind LB recalcitrance, experimental data over hydrolysis time must be collected. Here, we describe a novel method to collect time-lapse images during cell wall deconstruction by enzymatic hydrolysis. The protocol includes instructions for sample preparation, layout of a custom designed incubation chamber and instructions for confocal time lapse acquisition. The protocol sets out a detailed plan where cross-sections of untreated and pretreated poplar samples are mounted in a sealed frame containing a buffer and an enzymatic cocktail. The sealed frame is then placed into an incubator to maintain the sample at a constant temperature of 50 °C, which is optimal for enzymatic reaction while avoiding enzymatic cocktail evaporation. Using lignin natural autofluorescence, confocal z-stacks of untreated and pretreated samples were acquired at regular time intervals during enzymatic hydrolysis for 24 h. Acquisition parameters were optimized to compromise between image resolution and reduced photo-bleaching. The acquired image might then be processed by further development of algorithms to extract precise quantitative information on cell wall deconstruction. This protocol is an important first step towards elucidating the underlying parameters of LB recalcitrance by allowing the acquisition of high-quality images of LB hydrolysis for extracting quantitative data on LB deconstruction.

scholarly journals Insights into plant cell wall structure, architecture, and integrity using glycome profiling of native and AFEXTM-pre-treated biomass

2015 ◽  
Vol 66 (14) ◽  
pp. 4279-4294 ◽  
Author(s):  
Sivakumar Pattathil ◽  
Michael G. Hahn ◽  
Bruce E. Dale ◽  
Shishir P. S. Chundawat
Keyword(s):  
Cell Wall ◽  
Plant Cell ◽  
Plant Cell Wall ◽  
Cell Wall Structure ◽  
Wall Structure ◽  
Glycome Profiling

scholarly journals Investigation of cell wall proteins of C. sinensis leaves by combining cell wall proteomics and N-glycoproteomics

2021 ◽  
Vol 21 (1) ◽  
Author(s):  
Yanli Liu ◽  
Linlong Ma ◽  
Dan Cao ◽  
Ziming Gong ◽  
Jing Fan ◽  
...  
Keyword(s):  
Cell Wall ◽  
Defense Response ◽  
Large Scale ◽  
Plant Cell Wall ◽  
Functional Class ◽  
Wall Structure ◽  
Cell Wall Proteins ◽  
Cell Wall Formation ◽  
Cell Wall Polysaccharides ◽  
Wall Formation

Abstract Background C. sinensis is an important economic crop with fluoride over-accumulation in its leaves, which poses a serious threat to human health due to its leaf consumption as tea. Recently, our study has indicated that cell wall proteins (CWPs) probably play a vital role in fluoride accumulation/detoxification in C. sinensis. However, there has been a lack in CWP identification and characterization up to now. This study is aimed to characterize cell wall proteome of C. sinensis leaves and to develop more CWPs related to stress response. A strategy of combined cell wall proteomics and N-glycoproteomics was employed to investigate CWPs. CWPs were extracted by sequential salt buffers, while N-glycoproteins were enriched by hydrophilic interaction chromatography method using C. sinensis leaves as a material. Afterwards all the proteins were subjected to UPLC-MS/MS analysis. Results A total of 501 CWPs and 195 CWPs were identified respectively by cell wall proteomics and N-glycoproteomics profiling with 118 CWPs in common. Notably, N-glycoproteomics is a feasible method for CWP identification, and it can enhance CWP coverage. Among identified CWPs, proteins acting on cell wall polysaccharides constitute the largest functional class, most of which might be involved in cell wall structure remodeling. The second largest functional class mainly encompass various proteases related to CWP turnover and maturation. Oxidoreductases represent the third largest functional class, most of which (especially Class III peroxidases) participate in defense response. As expected, identified CWPs are mainly related to plant cell wall formation and defense response. Conclusion This was the first large-scale investigation of CWPs in C. sinensis through cell wall proteomics and N-glycoproteomics. Our results not only provide a database for further research on CWPs, but also an insight into cell wall formation and defense response in C. sinensis.

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