scholarly journals Anthocyanins in Floral Colors: Biosynthesis and Regulation in Chrysanthemum Flowers

2020 ◽  
Vol 21 (18) ◽  
pp. 6537
Author(s):  
Manjulatha Mekapogu ◽  
Bala Murali Krishna Vasamsetti ◽  
Oh-Keun Kwon ◽  
Myung-Suk Ahn ◽  
Sun-Hyung Lim ◽  
...  
Keyword(s):  
Transcriptional Control ◽  
Anthocyanin Biosynthesis ◽  
Chrysanthemum Morifolium ◽  
Regulatory Mechanisms ◽  
Floral Color ◽  
Broad Variety ◽  
Ray Florets ◽  
Genetic And Environmental Factors ◽  
Molecular Regulatory Mechanisms ◽  
Vast Range

Chrysanthemum (Chrysanthemum morifolium) is an economically important ornamental crop across the globe. As floral color is the major factor determining customer selection, manipulation of floral color has been a major objective for breeders. Anthocyanins are one of the main pigments contributing to a broad variety of colors in the ray florets of chrysanthemum. Manipulating petal pigments has resulted in the development of a vast range of floral colors. Although the candidate genes involved in anthocyanin biosynthesis have been well studied, the genetic and transcriptional control of floral color remains unclear. Despite advances in multi-omics technology, these methods remain in their infancy in chrysanthemum, owing to its large complex genome and hexaploidy. Hence, there is a need to further elucidate and better understand the genetic and molecular regulatory mechanisms in chrysanthemum, which can provide a basis for future advances in breeding for novel and diverse floral colors in this commercially beneficial crop. Therefore, this review describes the significance of anthocyanins in chrysanthemum flowers, and the mechanism of anthocyanin biosynthesis under genetic and environmental factors, providing insight into the development of novel colored ray florets. Genetic and molecular regulatory mechanisms that control anthocyanin biosynthesis and the various breeding efforts to modify floral color in chrysanthemum are detailed.

scholarly journals Whole-transcriptome analysis of differentially expressed genes in the mutant and normal capitula of Chrysanthemum morifolium

2020 ◽  
Author(s):  
Hua Liu ◽  
Chang Luo ◽  
Dongliang Chen ◽  
Yaqin Wang ◽  
Shuang Guo ◽  
...  
Keyword(s):  
Differentially Expressed Genes ◽  
Transcriptome Analysis ◽  
Anthocyanin Biosynthesis ◽  
Floral Organ ◽  
Chrysanthemum Morifolium ◽  
Differentially Expressed ◽  
Vegetative Buds ◽  
Ray Florets ◽  
Whole Transcriptome Analysis ◽  
Whole Transcriptome

Abstract Background: Chrysanthemum morifolium is one of the most economically important and popular floricultural crops in the family Asteraceae. Chrysanthemum flowers vary considerably in terms of colors and shapes. However, the molecular mechanism controlling the development of chrysanthemum floral colors and shapes remains an enigma. We analyzed a cut-flower chrysanthemum variety that produces normal capitula composed of ray florets with normally developed pistils and purple corollas and mutant capitula comprising ray florets with green corollas and vegetative buds instead of pistils.Results: We conducted a whole-transcriptome analysis of the differentially expressed genes (DEGs) in the mutant and normal capitula using third-generation and second-generation sequencing techniques. We identified the DEGs between the mutant and normal capitula to reveal important regulators underlying the differential development. Many transcription factors and genes related to the photoperiod and GA pathways, floral organ identity, and the anthocyanin biosynthesis pathway were differentially expressed between the normal and mutant capitula. A qualitative analysis of the pigments in the florets of normal and mutant capitula indicated anthocyanins were synthesized and accumulated in the florets of normal capitula, but not in the florets of mutant capitula. These results provide clues regarding the molecular basis of the replacement of Chrysanthemum morifolium ray florets with normally developed pistils and purple corollas with mutant ray florets with green corollas and vegetative buds. Additionally, the study findings will help to elucidate the molecular mechanisms underlying floral organ development and contribute to the development of techniques for studying the regulation of flower shape and color, which may enhance chrysanthemum breeding.Conclusions: The whole-transcriptome analysis of DEGs in mutant and normal C. morifolium capitula described herein indicates the anthocyanin deficiency of the mutant capitula may be related to the mutation that replaces ray floret pistils with vegetative buds. Moreover, pistils may be required for the anthocyanin biosynthesis in the corollas of chrysanthemum ray florets.

scholarly journals Whole-transcriptome analysis of differentially expressed genes in the mutant and normal capitula of Chrysanthemum morifolium

2020 ◽  
Author(s):  
Hua Liu ◽  
Chang Luo ◽  
Dongliang Chen ◽  
Yaqin Wang ◽  
Shuang Guo ◽  
...  
Keyword(s):  
Differentially Expressed Genes ◽  
Transcriptome Analysis ◽  
Anthocyanin Biosynthesis ◽  
Floral Organ ◽  
Chrysanthemum Morifolium ◽  
Differentially Expressed ◽  
Vegetative Buds ◽  
Ray Florets ◽  
Whole Transcriptome Analysis ◽  
Whole Transcriptome

Abstract Background Chrysanthemum morifolium is one of the most economically important and popular floricultural crops in the family Asteraceae. Chrysanthemum flowers vary considerably in terms of colors and shapes. However, the molecular mechanism controlling the development of chrysanthemum floral colors and shapes remains an enigma. We analyzed a cut-flower chrysanthemum variety that produces normal capitula composed of ray florets with normally developed pistils and purple corollas and mutant capitula comprising ray florets with green corollas and vegetative buds instead of pistils. Results We conducted a whole-transcriptome analysis of the differentially expressed genes (DEGs) in the mutant and normal capitula using third-generation and second-generation sequencing techniques. We identified the DEGs between the mutant and normal capitula to reveal important regulators underlying the differential development. Many transcription factors and genes related to the photoperiod and GA pathways, floral organ identity, and the anthocyanin biosynthesis pathway were differentially expressed between the normal and mutant capitula. A qualitative analysis of the pigments in the florets of normal and mutant capitula indicated anthocyanins were synthesized and accumulated in the florets of normal capitula, but not in the florets of mutant capitula. These results provide clues regarding the molecular basis of the replacement of Chrysanthemum morifolium ray florets with normally developed pistils and purple corollas with mutant ray florets with green corollas and vegetative buds . Additionally, the study findings will help to elucidate the molecular mechanisms underlying floral organ development and contribute to the development of techniques for studying the regulation of flower shape and color, which may enhance chrysanthemum breeding. Conclusions The whole-transcriptome analysis of DEGs in mutant and normal C. morifolium capitula described herein indicates the anthocyanin deficiency of the mutant capitula may be related to the mutation that replaces ray floret pistils with vegetative buds. Moreover, pistils may be required for the anthocyanin biosynthesis in the corollas of chrysanthemum ray florets.

scholarly journals Alternative Splicing of the Basic Helix–Loop–Helix Transcription Factor Gene CmbHLH2 Affects Anthocyanin Biosynthesis in Ray Florets of Chrysanthemum (Chrysanthemum morifolium)

2021 ◽  
Vol 12 ◽  
Author(s):  
Sun-Hyung Lim ◽  
Da-Hye Kim ◽  
Jae-A. Jung ◽  
Jong-Yeol Lee
Keyword(s):  
Transcription Factor ◽  
Alternative Splicing ◽  
Anthocyanin Biosynthesis ◽  
Underlying Mechanism ◽  
Chrysanthemum Morifolium ◽  
Full Length ◽  
Cultivation Conditions ◽  
Helix Loop Helix ◽  
Transcription Factor Genes ◽  
Ray Florets

Chrysanthemum is an important ornamental crop worldwide. Some white-flowered chrysanthemum cultivars produce red ray florets under natural cultivation conditions, but little is known about how this occurs. We compared the expression of anthocyanin biosynthetic and transcription factor genes between white ray florets and those that turned red based on cultivation conditions to comprehend the underlying mechanism. Significant differences in the expression of CmbHLH2 were detected between the florets of different colors. CmbHLH2 generated two alternatively spliced transcripts, designated CmbHLH2Full and CmbHLH2Short. Compared with CmbHLH2Full, CmbHLH2Short encoded a truncated protein with only a partial MYB-interaction region and no other domains normally present in the full-length protein. Unlike the full-length form, the splicing variant protein CmbHLH2Short localized to the cytoplasm and the nucleus and could not interact with CmMYB6. Additionally, CmbHLH2Short failed to activate anthocyanin biosynthetic genes and induce pigment accumulation in transiently transfected tobacco leaves, whereas CmbHLH2Full promoted both processes when simultaneously expressed with CmMYB6. Co-expressing CmbHLH2Full and CmMYB6 also enhanced the promoter activities of CmCHS and CmDFR. Notably, the Arabidopsis tt8-1 mutant, which lacks red pigmentation in the leaves and seeds, could be complemented by the heterologous expression of CmbHLH2Full, which restored red pigmentation and resulted in red pigmentation in high anthocyanin and proanthocyanidin contents in the leaves and seeds, respectively, whereas expression of CmbHLH2Short did not. Together, these results indicate that CmbHLH2 and CmMYB6 interaction plays a key role in the anthocyanin pigmentation changes of ray florets in chrysanthemum. Our findings highlight alternative splicing as a potential approach to modulate anthocyanin biosynthesis in specific tissues.

scholarly journals Regulatory Mechanisms of Anthocyanin Biosynthesis in Apple and Pear

2021 ◽  
Vol 22 (16) ◽  
pp. 8441
Author(s):  
Huimin Liu ◽  
Zijin Liu ◽  
Yu Wu ◽  
Lamei Zheng ◽  
Genfa Zhang
Keyword(s):  
Molecular Mechanisms ◽  
Anthocyanin Biosynthesis ◽  
Phenylpropanoid Pathway ◽  
Regulatory Mechanisms ◽  
Fruit Species ◽  
Great Progress ◽  
Model Plant Arabidopsis Thaliana ◽  
Specific Factors ◽  
Molecular Regulatory Mechanisms ◽  
Plant Arabidopsis Thaliana

Anthocyanins contribute to the quality and flavour of fruits. They are produced through the phenylpropanoid pathway, which is regulated by specific key genes that have been identified in many species. The dominant anthocyanin forms are reversibly transformed at different pH states, thus forming different colours in aqueous solutions. In plants, anthocyanins are controlled by specific factors of the biosynthetic pathway: light, temperature, phytohormones and transcription factors. Although great progress in research on anthocyanin structures and the regulation of anthocyanin biosynthesis has been made, the molecular regulatory mechanisms of anthocyanin biosynthesis in different plants remain less clear. In addition, the co-regulation of anthocyanin biosynthesis is poorly understood. In this review, we summarise previous findings on anthocyanin biosynthesis, including the biochemical and biological features of anthocyanins; differences in anthocyanin biosynthesis among fruit species, i.e., apple, red pear, and the model plant Arabidopsis thaliana; and the developmental and environmental regulation of anthocyanin accumulation. This review reveals the molecular mechanisms underlying anthocyanin biosynthesis in different plant species and provides valuable information for the development of anthocyanin-rich red-skinned and red-fleshed apple and pear varieties.

scholarly journals Whole-transcriptome analysis of differentially expressed genes in the mutant and normal capitula of Chrysanthemum morifolium

2021 ◽  
Vol 22 (1) ◽  
Author(s):  
Hua Liu ◽  
Chang Luo ◽  
Dongliang Chen ◽  
Yaqin Wang ◽  
Shuang Guo ◽  
...  
Keyword(s):  
Differentially Expressed Genes ◽  
Transcriptome Analysis ◽  
Anthocyanin Biosynthesis ◽  
Floral Organ ◽  
Chrysanthemum Morifolium ◽  
Differentially Expressed ◽  
Vegetative Buds ◽  
Ray Florets ◽  
Whole Transcriptome Analysis ◽  
Whole Transcriptome

Abstract Background Chrysanthemum morifolium is one of the most economically important and popular floricultural crops in the family Asteraceae. Chrysanthemum flowers vary considerably in terms of colors and shapes. However, the molecular mechanism controlling the development of chrysanthemum floral colors and shapes remains an enigma. We analyzed a cut-flower chrysanthemum variety that produces normal capitula composed of ray florets with normally developed pistils and purple corollas and mutant capitula comprising ray florets with green corollas and vegetative buds instead of pistils. Results We conducted a whole-transcriptome analysis of the differentially expressed genes (DEGs) in the mutant and normal capitula using third-generation and second-generation sequencing techniques. We identified the DEGs between the mutant and normal capitula to reveal important regulators underlying the differential development. Many transcription factors and genes related to the photoperiod and GA pathways, floral organ identity, and the anthocyanin biosynthesis pathway were differentially expressed between the normal and mutant capitula. A qualitative analysis of the pigments in the florets of normal and mutant capitula indicated anthocyanins were synthesized and accumulated in the florets of normal capitula, but not in the florets of mutant capitula. These results provide clues regarding the molecular basis of the replacement of Chrysanthemum morifolium ray florets with normally developed pistils and purple corollas with mutant ray florets with green corollas and vegetative buds. Additionally, the study findings will help to elucidate the molecular mechanisms underlying floral organ development and contribute to the development of techniques for studying the regulation of flower shape and color, which may enhance chrysanthemum breeding. Conclusions The whole-transcriptome analysis of DEGs in mutant and normal C. morifolium capitula described herein indicates the anthocyanin deficiency of the mutant capitula may be related to the mutation that replaces ray floret pistils with vegetative buds. Moreover, pistils may be required for the anthocyanin biosynthesis in the corollas of chrysanthemum ray florets.

scholarly journals Dramatic Increase in Content of Diverse Flavonoids Accompanied with Down-Regulation of F-Box Genes in a Chrysanthemum (Chrysanthemum × morifolium (Ramat.) Hemsl.) Mutant Cultivar Producing Dark-Purple Ray Florets

Genes ◽  
2020 ◽  
Vol 11 (8) ◽  
pp. 865
Author(s):  
Yeong Deuk Jo ◽  
Jaihyunk Ryu ◽  
Ye-Sol Kim ◽  
Kyung-Yun Kang ◽  
Min Jeong Hong ◽  
...  
Keyword(s):  
Translational Regulation ◽  
High Performance ◽  
Flower Color ◽  
Chrysanthemum Morifolium ◽  
Ionization Mass ◽  
Photodiode Array Detection ◽  
Genes Encoding ◽  
Ray Florets ◽  
Chrysanthemum Morifolium Ramat ◽  
Flavonoid Accumulation

Anthocyanins (a subclass of flavonoids) and flavonoids are crucial determinants of flower color and substances of pharmacological efficacy, respectively, in chrysanthemum. However, metabolic and transcriptomic profiling regarding flavonoid accumulation has not been performed simultaneously, thus the understanding of mechanisms gained has been limited. We performed HPLC-DAD-ESI-MS (high-performance liquid chromatography coupled with photodiode array detection and electrospray ionization mass spectrometry) and transcriptome analyses using “ARTI-Dark Chocolate” (AD), which is a chrysanthemum mutant cultivar producing dark-purple ray florets, and the parental cultivar “Noble Wine” for metabolic characterization and elucidation of the genetic mechanism determining flavonoid content. Among 26 phenolic compounds identified, three cyanidins and eight other flavonoids were detected only in AD. The total amounts of diverse flavonoids were 8.0 to 10.3 times higher in AD. Transcriptome analysis showed that genes in the flavonoid biosynthetic pathway were not up-regulated in AD at the early flower stage, implying that the transcriptional regulation of the pathway did not cause flavonoid accumulation. However, genes encoding post-translational regulation-related proteins, especially F-box genes in the mutated gene, were enriched among down-regulated genes in AD. From the combination of metabolic and transcriptomic data, we suggest that the suppression of post-translational regulation is a possible mechanism for flavonoid accumulation in AD. These results will contribute to research on the regulation and manipulation of flavonoid biosynthesis in chrysanthemum.

scholarly journals iTRAQ-Based Protein Profiling Provides Insights into the Mechanism of Light-Induced Anthocyanin Biosynthesis in Chrysanthemum (Chrysanthemum × morifolium)

Genes ◽  
2019 ◽  
Vol 10 (12) ◽  
pp. 1024
Author(s):  
Yan Hong ◽  
Mengling Li ◽  
Silan Dai
Keyword(s):  
Biosynthetic Pathway ◽  
Developmental Stages ◽  
Anthocyanin Biosynthesis ◽  
Expression Patterns ◽  
Flower Color ◽  
Chrysanthemum Morifolium ◽  
Light Signal ◽  
Protein Profiling ◽  
Differentially Expressed ◽  
Anthocyanin Biosynthetic Pathway

The generation of chrysanthemum (Chrysanthemum × morifolium) flower color is mainly attributed to the accumulation of anthocyanins. Light is one of the key environmental factors that affect the anthocyanin biosynthesis, but the deep molecular mechanism remains elusive. In our previous study, a series of light-induced structural and regulatory genes involved in the anthocyanin biosynthetic pathway in the chrysanthemum were identified using RNA sequencing. In the present study, differentially expressed proteins that are in response to light with the capitulum development of the chrysanthemum ‘Purple Reagan’ were further identified using isobaric tags for relative and absolute quantification (iTRAQ) technique, and correlation between the proteomic and the transcriptomic libraries was analyzed. In general, 5106 raw proteins were assembled based on six proteomic libraries (three capitulum developmental stages × two light treatments). As many as 160 proteins were differentially expressed between the light and the dark libraries with 45 upregulated and 115 downregulated proteins in response to shading. Comparative analysis between the pathway enrichment and the gene expression patterns indicated that most of the proteins involved in the anthocyanin biosynthetic pathway were downregulated after shading, which was consistent with the expression patterns of corresponding encoding genes; while five light-harvesting chlorophyll a/b-binding proteins were initially downregulated after shading, and their expressions were enhanced with the capitulum development thereafter. As revealed by correlation analysis between the proteomic and the transcriptomic libraries, GDSL esterase APG might also play an important role in light signal transduction. Finally, a putative mechanism of light-induced anthocyanin biosynthesis in the chrysanthemum was proposed. This study will help us to clearly identify light-induced proteins associated with flower color in the chrysanthemum and to enrich the complex mechanism of anthocyanin biosynthesis for use in cultivar breeding.

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