scholarly journals GENETIC STRUCTURE OF UKRAINIAN MOUNTAIN CARPATHIAN SHEEP BY USE OFMICROSATELLITE LOCI

2018 ◽  
Vol 51 ◽  
pp. 225-230
Author(s):  
T. Chоkаn ◽  
A. Radko ◽  
S. Tarasjuk ◽  
A. Szumiec ◽  
D. Rubiś
Keyword(s):  
Genetic Structure ◽  
Information Content ◽  
Dna Markers ◽  
Microsatellite Loci ◽  
Polymorphic Information Content ◽  
Molecular Genetic ◽  
Inbreeding Coefficient ◽  
Sheep Breed ◽  
Thick Fiber ◽  
Carpathian Mountain

Significant reduction of sheep population and the lack of clear selection-breeding work in Ukraine, have led to partial and in some cases complete loss of specific gene pools of local breeds. Intensification of the selection process accelerates absorption of uncompetitive breeding material, which primarily is mostly local (native) breeds, reducing their number, in consequence of which is rapidly decreasing natural diversity of animals. Using crossed with imported breeds doesn't solve the general problem of reconstruction and development of the sheep industry, while resulting in the loss of local breeds features, increasing the number of diseases, including genetically caused ones. The natural basis of Carpathian Mountain sheep is native (local) thick-fiber wool sheep, a typical representative of such sheep breed is Tsakel. Since the middle of last century, by a long reproductive crossbreeding of local thick-fiber wool ewes of Carpathian Mountain sheep with the rams of Tsigay breed, a Ukrainian Carpathian Mountain sheep breed combined with wool-milk-meat-sheep skin direction of productivity was created, and, in 1993, was approved. To study the polymorphism of microsatellite loci and molecular genetic estimation of Ukrainian Mountain Carpathian sheep we investigated the use of molecular genetic markers – microsatellite DNA sequences recommended by FAO for assessing biodiversity sheep. Material was taken from both sexes sheep of different age groups in "Bansko" farm, Rakhiv district – mountainous area and "Saldobosh" farm, Khust district, Transcarpathian region – low-lying area in the amount of 49 head. Genetic analysis of groups of sheep by the use of DNA markers was conducted based on the recommended list of the International Society for Animal Genetics (ISAG), for assessing sheep biodiversity by using different fluorescent coloring for labelling fragments. Given the criteria and recommendations of ISAG, we selected 11 microsatellite loci: Oar304, HSC, Oar129, MAF214, Oar11, INRA063, CSRD247, SPS113, D5S2, MAF65, McM527. The analysis revealed significant genetic differences in the use of microsatellite markers in sheep of this breed. We found a total of 106 alleles, which number ranges from 6 (D5S2 locus) to 13 (INRA63 locus). The identified alleles were used to determine polymorphism of markers. Based on the calculation of allele frequencies heterozygosity values (H), polymorphic information content (PIC) and inbreeding coefficient (FIS) were determined. The results showed that the markers had a high degree of polymorphism. The polymorphic information content (PIC) averaged 0,740 and ranged from 0,53 (Oar304 locus) to 0,84 (HSC locus). In our studies, the highest polymorphism was typical for INRA 063 locus, which consisted of 13 alleles with polymorphic information content (PIC) – 0,838 and observed heterozygosity (HO) – 0,857. High variability was also detected for loci HSC, Oar11 and SPS113, where it was identified more than 9 alleles, and the value of PIC and HO varied from 0,74 and 0,84 (SPS113) to 0,89 and 0,81 (Oar11). The lowest polymorphism was noted for Oar304 locus where it was found 9 allelic variants, but two of them (164 and170 bp) had much higher frequency of 0,28 and 0,57. PIC and HO values for this locus were 0,53 and 0,47, respectively. The other markers exhibited a similar polymorphism, with the number of alleles in the range of 8-11 and PIC and HO values ranging from 0,65 and 0,61 (Oar129) to 0,72 and 0,70 (MAF65). Thus, information on the genetic structure of Ukrainian Mountain Carpathian sheep breed and its diversity at the genomic level was obtained by use of 11 microsatellite loci. The specific features of the structure of the gene pool were revealed. The analysis showed a significant genetic variability of the studied microsatellite loci. Totally 106 alleles were identified that were used to determine the discussed polymorphism markers. The highest polymorphism was characterized for Oar 11, INRA063 and SPS113 loci which had more than 9 alleles, whereas the index of polymorphism (PIC) and actual heterozygosity (HO) exceeded 0,80. The lowest polymorphism was revealed for Oar304 locus and at the presence of 9 alleles, PIC and HO values were 0,53 and 0,47 respectively. Average inbreeding coefficient had low negative value (0,070), indicating almost absent inbreeding within the studied breed. The obtained information at the appropriate assessment using classical methods of selection and breeding makes it possible to control the genetic structure directly with DNA markers, and the creation of targeted groups of animals through genetic selection based on appropriate economic characteristics.

scholarly journals Development and characterization of fifteen polymorphic microsatellite loci in Bryconamericus aff. iheringii (Teleostei: Characidae) and cross-amplification in related Characidae species

2018 ◽  
Vol 16 (1) ◽  
Author(s):  
Caroline Apolinário-Silva ◽  
Dhiego G. Ferreira ◽  
Analiza F. Cavenagh ◽  
Nícollas G. O. Aprígio ◽  
Bruno A. Galindo ◽  
...  
Keyword(s):  
Information Content ◽  
Microsatellite Loci ◽  
Polymorphic Information Content ◽  
Neotropical Fish ◽  
Genetic Studies ◽  
Cross Amplification ◽  
Abstract Data ◽  
Polymorphic Microsatellite

ABSTRACT Data on 15 novel microsatellite loci from the Neotropical fish Bryconamericus aff. iheringii are presented here. Analyses of 32 individuals from four different streams revealed 192 different alleles, ranging from four to 32 alleles per locus (mean of 12.8 per locus). Observed and expected heterozygosities ranged from 0.094 to 0.813 and 0.205 to 0.952, respectively. These loci showed high polymorphic information content and will be a resource for genetic studies of B. aff. iheringii. Furthermore, several loci also amplified other small Neotropical Characidae (Piabarchus stramineus and Piabina argentea) and should be useful for these species.

scholarly journals PICcalc: An Online Program to Calculate Polymorphic Information Content for Molecular Genetic Studies

2012 ◽  
Vol 50 (9-10) ◽  
pp. 670-672 ◽  
Author(s):  
Sándor Nagy ◽  
Péter Poczai ◽  
István Cernák ◽  
Ahmad Mousapour Gorji ◽  
Géza Hegedűs ◽  
...  
Keyword(s):  
Information Content ◽  
Polymorphic Information Content ◽  
Molecular Genetic ◽  
Online Program ◽  
Genetic Studies

scholarly journals Molecular genetic diversity and conservation priorities of Egyptian rabbit breeds

2019 ◽  
Vol 27 (3) ◽  
pp. 135
Author(s):  
O.A.M. Badr ◽  
I.I.S. El-Shawaf ◽  
M.H.A. Khalil ◽  
M.H. Refaat ◽  
S.I.A. Ramadan
Keyword(s):  
Genetic Diversity ◽  
Information Content ◽  
Polymorphic Information Content ◽  
Molecular Genetic ◽  
Vital Role ◽  
Conservation Priorities ◽  
Molecular Genetic Diversity ◽  
Hardy Weinberg Equilibrium ◽  
Diversity Studies ◽  
Nei's Genetic Distance

<p>The limited rabbit resources in Egypt are threatened by the danger of extinction, whereas genetic diversity studies of native breeds could play a vital role in conservation and improvement of these breeds. In this study, 3 native rabbit breeds: Gabali (G), Baladi Red (BR) and Baladi Black (BB), in addition to New Zealand White (NZW), were genotyped using 12 microsatellite markers. All the typed microsatellites were polymorphic by average number of alleles 5.25 per locus. Observed and expected heterozygosity per locus averaged 0.62 and 0.68, respectively. The average polymorphic information content was 0.71 and the highest polymorphic information content was recorded in locus SOL33 by 0.85. All the studied loci except SAT7 and SAT2 showed deviation from Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium with significant level. The inbreeding coefficient of the individuals relative to the total population was 0.07. The within-population heterozygote deficit averaged 0.07 and ranged from 0.141 in BR to 0.015 in BB breeds. The highest pairwise differentiation among the populations was recorded between BB and NZW (0.071), while the lowest value was recorded between BR and both of G (0.038) and BB (0.039). The lowest pairwise Nei’s genetic distance was recorded between BR and BB (0.190), while the highest was recorded between NZW and BB breeds (0.409). BR and G populations were clustered together forming an admixed mosaic cluster. BR recorded the highest contribution in the aggregate genetic diversity based on the three prioritisation methods used.</p>

scholarly journals Interspecies and intraspecies genetic diversity of Ongole Grade cattle and Madura cattle based on microsatellite DNA markers

2018 ◽  
Vol 19 (4) ◽  
pp. 1593-1600
Author(s):  
SUTARNO . ◽  
NINA KURNIANINGRUM ◽  
ELISA HERAWATI ◽  
AHMAD DWI SETYAWAN
Keyword(s):  
Genetic Diversity ◽  
Dna Sequences ◽  
Dna Markers ◽  
Microsatellite Loci ◽  
Microsatellite Dna ◽  
Polymorphic Information Content ◽  
Entire Genome ◽  
Genetic Characteristics ◽  
Microsatellite Dna Markers ◽  
The Mean

Sutarno, Kurnianingrum N, Herawati E, Setyawan AD. 2018. Interspecies and intraspecies genetic diversity of Ongole Gradecattle and Madura cattle based on microsatellite DNA markers. Biodiversitas 19: 1593-1600. DNA microsatellite has been extensivelyemployed for estimating the degree of kinship between genotypes and improving the quality of cattle products. Microsatellite markersare short-patterned DNA sequences and repeated tandem (sequentially) with 2-5 nucleotide units scattering the entire genome. Thepurpose of this study was to investigate the genetic characteristics of inter and intraspecies of Ongole Grade cattle and Madura cattleusing microsatellite DNA markers. Blood samples from 20 individuals of each species were extracted by the method referring to WizardGenomic DNA Purification Kit (Promega, USA) and PCR amplification was performed using 5 microsatellite loci, i.e., BM1824,ETH225, INRA005, MM12, and TGLA227. Results of the genetic characteristics of both species were calculated using the POPGENEprogram version 1.31. The data suggest that there is a genetic diversity of inter and intraspecies of Ongole Grade cattle and Maduracattle. The average value of Shannon's Information Index (I) at all microsatellite loci for Ongole Grade cattle was 0.76 and for Maduracattle was 1.12. Meanwhile, the average interspecies I value was 1.03. The mean intraspecies Polymorphic Information Content (PIC) ofOngole Grade and Madura cattle was 0.43, and 0.63, respectively, and the mean interspecies PIC value was 0.57. The data altogethersuggest that all loci meet the standards as being informative markers in the assessment of genetic population because it has a PIC value>0.5 especially for intraspecies of Madura cattle.

scholarly journals Genotypic characterization of microsatellite markers in broiler and layer selected chicken lines and their reciprocal F1s

2009 ◽  
Vol 66 (2) ◽  
pp. 150-158 ◽  
Author(s):  
Millor Fernandes do Rosário ◽  
Mônica Corrêa Ledur ◽  
Ana Silvia Alves Meira Tavares Moura ◽  
Luiz Lehmann Coutinho ◽  
Antonio Augusto Franco Garcia
Keyword(s):  
Linkage Disequilibrium ◽  
Qtl Mapping ◽  
Microsatellite Markers ◽  
Information Content ◽  
Microsatellite Loci ◽  
Polymorphic Information Content ◽  
Layer Line ◽  
Allelic Frequencies ◽  
Parental Lines

Chicken experimental populations have been developed worldwide for QTL mapping, but their genotypic characterizations are not usually discussed. The objective of this study was to characterize genotypically two F1 reciprocal generations and their parental lines based on the estimation of genotypic parameters. These F1 generations originated two Brazilian reference populations to map QTL. The evaluated parameters were polymorphic information content (PIC), observed and expected heterozygosities and number of alleles at microsatellite loci on chromosomes 1, 3 and 4. All parental and F1 chickens from both populations were used totalling of 83 chickens: 14 from a broiler (TT) and 14 from a layer line (CC) and 55 from their reciprocal F1 generations. The chicken lines and the resource populations were developed at the National Research Center for Swine and Poultry (EMBRAPA), Brazil. Genotypes from all animals were obtained from 34 loci on chromosomes 1 (13), 3 (12) and 4 (9). Based on the sampling, we found that the two lines exhibited a total of 163 different alleles, of which 31 (31.1%) and 44 (33.0%) alleles were unique in CC and TT lines, respectively, with allelic frequencies ranging from 0.03 to 0.82. The observed heterozygosity was higher (0.68-0.71) in both F1 generations than in their founder lines due to linkage disequilibrium. Finally, the two chicken lines used as founders created two F1 reciprocal generations with high levels of PIC (0.50-0.52) and observed heterozygosity, as well as satisfactory number of alleles per locus (4.06-4.32). Our results will allow to compare and select families with highly informative microsatellite markers for QTL studies, reducing genotyping costs.

scholarly journals Validation of 10 Microsatellite Loci for Their use in Parentage Verification and Individual Identification in the Yugoslavian Shepherd Dog Sharplanina / Walidacja 10 Loci Mikrosatelitarnych Do Kontroli Pochodzenia Oraz Identyfikacji Osobniczej Jugosłowiańskiego Psa Pasterskiego Z Szar Płaniny

2013 ◽  
Vol 13 (4) ◽  
pp. 715-722 ◽  
Author(s):  
Vladimir Dimitrijevic ◽  
Jevrosima Stevanovic ◽  
Mila Savic ◽  
Branko Petrujkic ◽  
Predrag Simeunovic ◽  
...  
Keyword(s):  
Genetic Variability ◽  
Microsatellite Markers ◽  
Information Content ◽  
Microsatellite Loci ◽  
Gene Pool ◽  
Polymorphic Information Content ◽  
Diversity Indices ◽  
Individual Identification ◽  
Variable Gene ◽  
Primary Focus

Abstract The aim of the study was to assess a commercially available microsatellite panel for use in paternity and identification analyses in the Yugoslavian Shepherd Dog Sharplanina, an ancient livestock guarding breed. Allele frequencies for 10 microsatellite loci (PEZ01, FHC2054, FHC2010, PEZ05, PEZ20, PEZ12, PEZ03, PEZ06, PEZ08 and FHC2079) were determined in 103 unrelated Yugoslavian Shepherd Dog individuals. The loci revealed varied levels of polymorphism (five to 12 alleles), with an average of 7.83 per locus. Average values of observed heterozygosity and polymorphic information content (PIC) were 0.64 and 0.66, respectively. Nine out of 10 microsatellite markers were highly informative with PIC values higher than 0.5. The obtained value of combined power of exclusion (0.9989) confirms usefulness of this panel of microsatellites for parentage verification, while the value of combined power of discrimination of 0.9999 clearly shows that the panel can conclusively identify individual dogs. In conclusion, the results obtained suggest that the selected set of commercially available microsatellite markers may be used as a routine tool for parentage verification and individual identification in the Yugoslavian Shepherd Dog. Although analysis of genetic variability of the Yugoslavian Shepherd Dog was not the primary focus of the study, the established values of major diversity indices disclose a highly variable gene pool in the breed.

scholarly journals Assessment of 17 microsatellite loci for their use in parentage verification and individual identification in the Balkan donkey breed

Genetika ◽  
2017 ◽  
Vol 49 (1) ◽  
pp. 21-30 ◽  
Author(s):  
Ljubodrag Stanisic ◽  
Vladimir Dimitrijevic ◽  
Predrag Simeunovic ◽  
Uros Glavinic ◽  
Biljana Jovanovic ◽  
...  
Keyword(s):  
Microsatellite Markers ◽  
Information Content ◽  
Microsatellite Loci ◽  
Polymorphic Information Content ◽  
Allele Frequencies ◽  
Individual Identification

The aim of this study was to assess a panel of 17 microsatellites for parentage verification and individual identification in the endangered Balkan donkey breed. Allele frequencies for 17 microsatellite loci (AHT4, AHT5, ASB2, ASB17, ASB23, CA425, HTG4, HTG6, HTG7, HTG10, HMS1, HMS2, HMS3, HMS6, HMS7, LEX3 and VHL20) were determined in a 77 unrelated Balkan donkeys. Three loci (ASB2, HMS1 and ASB17) proved to be unsuitable and had been excluded from the investigation. Analysis of the remaining 14 loci revealed varied levels of polymorphism (three to 12 alleles), while the total number of observed alleles was 118 with an average of 8.42 per locus. Average values of observed heterozygosity and polymorphic information content (PIC) were 0.712 and 0.650, respectively. Twelve out of 14 microsatellite markers were highly informative with PIC values higher than 0.5. Only four loci were in HWE (HMS2, HMS6, HMS7 and HTG6). The obtained value of combined power of exclusion (0.9999) confirms usefulness of this microsatellite panel for parentage verification, while the value of combined power of discrimination of 0.9941 clearly approves the reliability of the panel for individual identification in Balkan donkeys.

scholarly journals Molecular characterization of the cucumber (Cucumis sativus L.) accessions held at the COMAV’s genebank

2018 ◽  
Vol 16 (1) ◽  
pp. e0701 ◽  
Author(s):  
Jose V. Valcárcel ◽  
Ana Perez-de-Castro ◽  
María José Díez ◽  
Rosa Peiró
Keyword(s):  
Cucumis Sativus ◽  
Information Content ◽  
Polymorphic Information Content ◽  
Phenotypic Variability ◽  
Molecular Genetic ◽  
Geographical Area ◽  
Molecular Data ◽  
Complete Collection ◽  
Cucumis Sativus L ◽  
Molecular Genetic Diversity

The cucumber (Cucumis sativus L.) is an important crop worldwide. In the present study, the molecular genetic diversity of 131 Spanish accessions was analyzed using 23 simple sequence repeat (SSRs). Eighteen of these SSRs were polymorphic; the mean number of alleles, mean observed heterozygosity and mean polymorphic information content were 3.2, 0.065 and 0.229, respectively. Seven SSRs showed a polymorphic information content (PIC) ranging from 0.31 to 0.44, therefore they were reasonably informative. Around 60% of the alleles showed a frequency higher than 0.05, and only one allele in the SSR31399 showed a frequency lower than 0.01. In addition, three accession-specific alleles were found. A high proportion of variation among accessions was obtained. In no case all plants of any accession showed the same genotype and only 18 of 131 Spanish accessions had at least two plants with the same genotype. A cluster analysis did not show any relation with morphological types or geographical area. Therefore, these results demonstrated that molecular diversity of the cucumber did not reflect its phenotypic variability. Finally, this study provided information for the rationalization of the cucumber collection of the COMAV. Morphological traits, origin and molecular data were taken into account to select 47 accessions, six belonging to ‘French’ type, 15 to ‘Long’ type, and 24 to ‘Short’ type. Phenotypic and molecular variability contained in the complete collection was conserved in the selected accessions.

CONNECTION g.307 G > A SNP POLYMORPHISM OF THE ALPHA-FUKOZYLTRASFERAZA 1 GENE WITH ECONOMIC-USEFUL TRAITS IN THE LARGE WHITE PIG BREED

2017 ◽  
Vol 54 ◽  
pp. 134-140
Author(s):  
H. S. Rudoman ◽  
V. M. Balatsky ◽  
V. Y. Nor ◽  
V. O. Vovk
Keyword(s):  
Genetic Structure ◽  
Information Content ◽  
Analysis Of Variance ◽  
Farm Animals ◽  
Daily Weight Gain ◽  
Fixation Index ◽  
Its Sequencing ◽  
Large White ◽  
Stage Of Development ◽  
High Level

One of the top priorities at the present stage of development of pig breeding remains the development of a set of measures aimed at increasing the resistance animals to various diseases, especially – to colibacteriosis .One of the recent and effective approaches to prevent colibacillosis is using markers of selection; it involves pig genotyping by genome locuses. Chosen locuses are associated with animal sensitivity to the disease and selection of the results of genotyping of animals with increased resistance. Due to researches, one of such locuses is alpha-fukozyltrasferаza 1 gene (FUT1). Gene FUT1 is located in chromosome 6. As a result of its sequencing in the swine breeds of Large White and Swedish Landrace, single-nucleotide polymorphism (g.307 G > A SNP) has been detected. AA genotype determines the resistance of animals to colibacteriosis, while AG and GG genotypes are susceptible to this disease. According to the results of previous studies, the positive effect of allele A was determined not only on the resistance of pigs to colibacteriosis, but also on indicators of fattening and meat productivity and on reproductive performance. In Ukraine, the studies of polymorphism FUT1 g.307 G > A SNP were held fragmentedly and only on certain populations of Ukrainian Meat and Large White breed but without establishing its association with the indicators of productivity of pigs. The aim of our work was to study the genetic structure of Ukrainian Large White breeds, type 1 and the establishment of association. g. 307 G > A SNP FUT1 gene with pigs indicators of productivity. For research the 96 samples of hair were used. DNA isolation from samples with biomaterial were carried out using ion exchange resin Chelex-100. Genotyping was performed by PCR-RFLP by method of Jorgensen et al. (2006). Using DNA analysis of this breeds locus FUT1 was determined by genetic structure. Allele frequency of allele G (0,573) and allele A (0,427) was established The distribution of genotype frequencies was not statistically significantly different from the theoretically expected, calculated by the Hardy-Weinberg criterion. Thus, according to the locus of FUT1 g.307 G > A, the breeds investigated are in a state close to the genetic equilibrium. The negative value of the fixation index by the locus FUT1 g.307 G > A indicates an excess of heterozygotes in the population, and hence the lack of targeted selection for this marker. The valuation was performed by calculating the PIC (polymorphic information content) – information content of polymorphism marker. In the analyzed pig herd for this marker, the PIC has an average value (0,367), which indicates the high level of polymorphism of the given locus and is favorable for the possibility of conducting a search for links between individual genotypes and indicators of productivity. To establish the association g.307 G > A SNP FUT1 gene with indicators of animal productivity, a one-way analysis of variance of the experimental data was used. Based on the results of a one-way analysis of variance, a significant effect of the genotypes of the FUT1gene (g.1849 G > C) on the indicator of the average daily weight gain (р ≤ 0,001), the thickness of the bacon at the level of the VI-VII vertebrae (p ≤ 0.01), reaching live weight of 100 kg (р ≤ 0,001) and breeding index of fattening qualities (р ≤ 0,01) was found. The parameter of the influence of the genetic factor on the test feature was 28,54%, 10,4%, 33,4% and 8,8% respectively. According to the investigated indicators of productivity, animals with genotype AA, which determines resistance to colibacteriosis, dominated the animals with genotypes GG and AG. Based on the results of our research and pre-published data, the multiple effect of the g.307 G > A SNP FUT1 gene is observed, which is associated with the indicators of productivity, which again confirms the polygenicity of the quantitative trait loci of farm animals. Taking into account a high level of polymorphism of the investigated gene and reliable associations of genotypes with indicators of productivity found, it can be recommended to carry out breeding of pigs using genetic information of the g.307 G > A SNP gene FUT1.

scholarly journals Population Genetic Structure Analysis Reveals Decreased but Moderate Diversity for the Oriental Fire-Bellied Toad Introduced to Beijing after 90 Years of Independent Evolution

Animals ◽  
2021 ◽  
Vol 11 (5) ◽  
pp. 1429
Author(s):  
Yang Teng ◽  
Jing Yang ◽  
Guofen Zhu ◽  
Fuli Gao ◽  
Yingying Han ◽  
...  
Keyword(s):  
Genetic Structure ◽  
Structure Analysis ◽  
Phylogenetic Trees ◽  
Molecular Genetic ◽  
Genetic Research ◽  
Haplotype Diversity ◽  
Botanical Garden ◽  
Source Population ◽  
Independent Evolution ◽  
Loop Region

Detailed molecular genetic research on amphibian populations has a significant role in understanding the genetic adaptability to local environments. The oriental fire-bellied toads (Bombina orientalis) were artificially introduced to Beijing from Shandong Province in 1927, and since then, this separated population went through an independent evolution. To explore the differentiation of the introduced population with its original population, this study analyzed the genetic structure of the oriental fire-bellied toad, based on the mitochondrial genome control region and six microsatellite sites. The results showed that the haplotype diversity and nucleotide diversity of the mitochondrial D-loop region partial sequences of the Beijing Botanical Garden population and the Baiwangshan population were lower than those of the Shangdong Kunyushan population. Microsatellite marker analysis also showed that the observed heterozygosity and expected heterozygosity of the Beijing populations were lower than those of the Kunyushan population. The phylogenetic trees and network diagrams of haplotypes indicated that the three populations were not genetically separated. However, the structure analysis showed a genetic differentiation and categorized the sampling individuals into Beijing and Shandong genetic clusters, which indicated a tendency for isolated evolution in the Beijing population. Although the Beijing populations showed a decline in genetic diversity, it was still at a moderate level, which could maintain the survival of the population. Thus, there is no need to reintroduce new individuals from the Kunyushan source population.

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