scholarly journals SARS-CoV-2-the Unforeseen Peril of David Winning Against Goliath: the Immune Giant Collapsing Under Its Own Rampaging Cytokine Storm

2021 ◽  
Vol 2 (1) ◽  
pp. 26
Author(s):  
Xanya Sofra
Keyword(s):  
Skeletal Muscle ◽  
Immune Response ◽  
Immune Cells ◽  
Preventive Intervention ◽  
Inflammatory Marker ◽  
The Body ◽  
Alternative Methods ◽  
Cytokine Storm ◽  
Protective Function ◽  
Age Related

We examined SARS-CoV-2 (Covid-19) available treatments and prophylactic methods that included interventions associated with inhibiting the “type II transmembrane serine protease” (TMPRSS2) to limit the fusion between the Covid-19 Spike proteins and ACE2 receptors, or newly developed therapeutics like Remdesivir that interferes with the viral RNA replication. We explored the dilemma of ACE2 receptors that have a protective function against high blood pressure associated disorders, yet,they serve as the viral points of entry, elevating the probability of infection. Human tissues’ analysis reveals a higher ACE2 expression in adipose tissue, placing obesity-related conditions in the eye of the pandemic storm. It primarily exposes males due to the surge of ACE2 receptors in the testes along with other tissues. Males manifest a relatively higher positive ACE2 orrelations with certain immune cells in the lungs,thyroid, adrenals, liver and colon, while females evidence higher ACE2 correlations with immune cells in the heart. The remaining tissues’ ACE2/immunity expressions are equivalent in both sexes, indicating that despite its preference for males, the threat of Covid-19 can easily target females.Recent reports indicate that Covid-19 is empowered by hindering the critical process of viral recognition during the adaptive immune response leading to the “cytokine storm”, the aggravated immune response that indiscriminately perseveres, rampaging the host’s vital organs. Sedentary lifestyle, age-related hormonal imbalance, and adiposity induced inflammation predispose the body to the immune collapse following Covid-19 invasion, spotlighting the detrimental aftermath of metabolic dysfunction,and excess food consumption provoked by elevated cortisol and dysregulated appetite hormones. ACE 2 expression is suppressed in the skeletal muscle, rendering fitness and weight management an effective Covid-19 preventive intervention, along with social distancing, hygiene, and facial coverings. Physical activity, or exercise alternative methods have recently demonstrated statistically significant reductions of the inflammatory marker C-Reactive Protein (CRP), triglycerides, visceral fat, cortisol and the orexigenic hormone ghrelin, juxtaposed by optimal increases of IGF-1, skeletal muscle mass, Free T3, HDL, and the anorexic hormone leptin.

The War Against SARS-CoV-2: The Immune Giant Collapsing Under Its Own Rampaging Cytokine Storm

2021 ◽  
Author(s):  
Xanya Sofra
Keyword(s):  
Skeletal Muscle ◽  
Immune Response ◽  
Immune Cells ◽  
Preventive Intervention ◽  
Inflammatory Marker ◽  
The Body ◽  
Alternative Methods ◽  
Cytokine Storm ◽  
Protective Function ◽  
Age Related

We examined SARS-CoV-2 (Covid-19) available treatments and prophylactic methods that included interventions associated with inhibiting the ‘type II transmembrane serine protease’ (TMPRSS2) to limit the fusion between the Covid-19 Spike proteins and ACE2 receptors, or newly developed therapeutics like Remdesivir that interferes with the viral RNA replication. We explored the dilemma of ACE2 receptors that have a protective function against high blood pressure associated disorders, yet, they serve as the viral points of entry, elevating the probability of infection. Human tissues’ analysis reveals a higher ACE2 expression in adipose tissue, placing obesity-related conditions in the eye of the pandemic storm. It primarily exposes males due to the surge of ACE2 receptors in the testes along with other tissues. Males manifest a relatively higher positive ACE2 correlation with certain immune cells in the lungs, thyroid, adrenals, liver and colon, while females evidence higher ACE2 correlations with immune cells in the heart. The remaining tissues’ ACE2/immunity expressions are equivalent in both sexes, indicating that despite its preference for males, the threat of Covid-19 can easily target females. Recent reports indicate that Covid-19 is empowered by hindering the critical process of viral recognition during the adaptive immune response leading to the “cytokine storm,” the aggravated immune response that indiscriminately perseveres, rampaging the host’s vital organs. Sedentary lifestyle, age-related hormonal imbalance, and adiposity induced inflammation predispose the body to the immune collapse following Covid-19 invasion, spotlighting the detrimental aftermath of metabolic dysfunction, and excess food consumption, provoked by elevated cortisol and dysregulated appetite hormones. ACE2 expression is suppressed in the skeletal muscle, rendering fitness and weight management an effective Covid-19 preventive intervention, along with social distancing, hygiene, and facial coverings. Physical activity, or exercise alternative methods have recently demonstrated statistically significant reductions of the inflammatory marker C-Reactive Protein (CRP), triglycerides, visceral fat, cortisol and the orexigenic hormone ghrelin, juxtaposed by optimal increases of IGF-1, skeletal muscle mass, Free T3, HDL, and the anorexic hormone leptin.

scholarly journals Principals of innate and adaptive immunity. Immunity to microbes & fundamental concepts in immunology

2021 ◽  
Vol 10 (3) ◽  
pp. 188-197
Author(s):  
Andrew Kiboneka
Keyword(s):  
Immune Response ◽  
Immune Cells ◽  
Chemokine Receptors ◽  
The Body ◽  
Innate Immune ◽  
Lymphoid Cells ◽  
Biologically Active ◽  
Surface Receptors ◽  
Bacterial Surfaces ◽  
Cellular Immune

Microorganisms such as bacteria that penetrate the epithelial surfaces of the body for the first time are met immediately by cells and molecules that can mount an innate immune response. Phagocytic macrophages conduct the defense against bacteria by means of surface receptors that are able to recognize and bind common constituents of many bacterial surfaces. Bacterial molecules binding to these receptors trigger the macrophage to engulf the bacterium and also induce the secretion of biologically active molecules. Activated macrophages secrete cytokines, which are defined as proteins released by cells that affect the behavior of other cells that bear receptors for them. They also release proteins known as chemokines that attract cells with chemokine receptors such as neutrophils and monocytes from the bloodstream. Macrophages in response to bacterial constituents initiate the process known as inflammation. Antigen-presenting cells (APCs) are a heterogeneous group of immune cells that mediate the cellular immune response by processing and presenting antigens for recognition by certain lymphocytes such as T cells. Classical APCs include dendritic cells, macrophages, Langerhans cells and B cells. Innate lymphoid cells (ILCs) are immune cells that belong to the lymphoid lineage but do not express antigen-specific receptors. These cells have important functions in innate immune responses to infectious microorganisms and in the regulation of homeostasis and inflammation.

scholarly journals A Multi-Phenotype System to Discover Therapies for Age-Related Dysregulation of the Immune Response to Viral Infections

2020 ◽  
Author(s):  
Brandon White ◽  
Ben Komalo ◽  
Lauren Nicolaisen ◽  
Matt Donne ◽  
Charlie Marsh ◽  
...  
Keyword(s):  
Older Adults ◽  
Immune Response ◽  
Viral Infection ◽  
Immune Cells ◽  
Viral Infections ◽  
Cell Interaction ◽  
Rapid Identification ◽  
Beneficial Effects ◽  
Susceptibility To Infection ◽  
Age Related

ABSTRACTAge-related immune dysregulation contributes to increased susceptibility to infection and disease in older adults. We combined high-throughput laboratory automation with machine learning to build a multi-phenotype aging profile that models the dysfunctional immune response to viral infection in older adults. From a single well, our multi-phenotype aging profile can capture changes in cell composition, physical cell-to-cell interaction, organelle structure, cytokines, and other hidden complexities contributing to age-related dysfunction. This system allows for rapid identification of new potential compounds to rejuvenate older adults’ immune response. We used our technology to screen thousands of compounds for their ability to make old immune cells respond to viral infection like young immune cells. We observed beneficial effects of multiple compounds, of which two of the most promising were disulfiram and triptonide. Our findings indicate that disulfiram could be considered as a treatment for severe coronavirus disease 2019 and other inflammatory infections.

scholarly journals From Innate to Adaptive Immune Response in Muscular Dystrophies and Skeletal Muscle Regeneration: The Role of Lymphocytes

2014 ◽  
Vol 2014 ◽  
pp. 1-12 ◽  
Author(s):  
Luca Madaro ◽  
Marina Bouché
Keyword(s):  
Skeletal Muscle ◽  
Immune Response ◽  
Immune Cells ◽  
Current Knowledge ◽  
Adaptive Immune Response ◽  
Inflammatory Cells ◽  
Skeletal Muscle Regeneration ◽  
Current View ◽  
Muscle Necrosis

Skeletal muscle is able to restore contractile functionality after injury thanks to its ability to regenerate. Following muscle necrosis, debris is removed by macrophages, and muscle satellite cells (MuSCs), the muscle stem cells, are activated and subsequently proliferate, migrate, and form muscle fibers restoring muscle functionality. In most muscle dystrophies (MDs), MuSCs fail to properly proliferate, differentiate, or replenish the stem cell compartment, leading to fibrotic deposition. However, besides MuSCs, interstitial nonmyogenic cells and inflammatory cells also play a key role in orchestrating muscle repair. A complete understanding of the complexity of these mechanisms should allow the design of interventions to attenuate MDs pathology without disrupting regenerative processes. In this review we will focus on the contribution of immune cells in the onset and progression of MDs, with particular emphasis on Duchenne muscular dystrophy (DMD). We will briefly summarize the current knowledge and recent advances made in our understanding of the involvement of different innate immune cells in MDs and will move on to critically evaluate the possible role of cell populations within the acquired immune response. Revisiting previous observations in the light of recent evidence will likely change our current view of the onset and progression of the disease.

scholarly journals Interactions between Host Immunity and Skin-Colonizing Staphylococci: No Two Siblings Are Alike

2019 ◽  
Vol 20 (3) ◽  
pp. 718 ◽  
Author(s):  
Young Joon Park ◽  
Chae Won Kim ◽  
Heung Kyu Lee
Keyword(s):  
Immune Response ◽  
Immune Cells ◽  
Skin Diseases ◽  
Inflammatory Responses ◽  
Bacterial Species ◽  
Host Immunity ◽  
The Body ◽  
Skin Microbiome ◽  
Staphylococcus Epidermis ◽  
Skin Commensals

As the outermost layer of the body, the skin harbors innumerable and varied microorganisms. These microorganisms interact with the host, and these interactions contribute to host immunity. One of the most abundant genera of skin commensals is Staphylococcus. Bacteria belonging to this genus are some of the most influential commensals that reside on the skin. For example, colonization by Staphylococcus aureus, a well-known pathogen, increases inflammatory responses within the skin. Conversely, colonization by Staphylococcus epidermis, a coagulase-negative staphylococcal species that are prevalent throughout the skin, can be innocuous or beneficial. Thus, manipulating the abundance of these two bacterial species likely alters the skin microbiome and modulates the cutaneous immune response, with potential implications for various inflammation-associated skin diseases. Importantly, before researchers can begin manipulating the skin microbiome to prevent and treat disease, they must first fully understand how these two species can modulate the cutaneous immune response. In this review, we discuss the nature of the interactions between these two bacterial species and immune cells within the skin, discussing their immunogenicity within the context of skin disorders.

scholarly journals Hypoxia/HIF Modulates Immune Responses

Biomedicines ◽  
2021 ◽  
Vol 9 (3) ◽  
pp. 260
Author(s):  
Yuling Chen ◽  
Timo Gaber
Keyword(s):  
Immune Response ◽  
Cancer Progression ◽  
Immune Cells ◽  
Cell Function ◽  
Immune Cell ◽  
Adaptive Immune Response ◽  
Oxygen Availability ◽  
The Body ◽  
Low Oxygen ◽  
Adaptive Immune

Oxygen availability varies throughout the human body in health and disease. Under physiological conditions, oxygen availability drops from the lungs over the blood stream towards the different tissues into the cells and the mitochondrial cavities leading to physiological low oxygen conditions or physiological hypoxia in all organs including primary lymphoid organs. Moreover, immune cells travel throughout the body searching for damaged cells and foreign antigens facing a variety of oxygen levels. Consequently, physiological hypoxia impacts immune cell function finally controlling innate and adaptive immune response mainly by transcriptional regulation via hypoxia-inducible factors (HIFs). Under pathophysiological conditions such as found in inflammation, injury, infection, ischemia and cancer, severe hypoxia can alter immune cells leading to dysfunctional immune response finally leading to tissue damage, cancer progression and autoimmunity. Here we summarize the effects of physiological and pathophysiological hypoxia on innate and adaptive immune activity, we provide an overview on the control of immune response by cellular hypoxia-induced pathways with focus on the role of HIFs and discuss the opportunity to target hypoxia-sensitive pathways for the treatment of cancer and autoimmunity.

scholarly journals Metabolic Shifts as the Hallmark of Most Common Diseases: The Quest for the Underlying Unity

2021 ◽  
Vol 22 (8) ◽  
pp. 3972
Author(s):  
Laurent Schwartz ◽  
Marc Henry ◽  
Khalid O. Alfarouk ◽  
Stephan J. Reshkin ◽  
Miroslav Radman
Keyword(s):  
Immune Response ◽  
Opposite Direction ◽  
Warburg Effect ◽  
Modern Medicine ◽  
The Body ◽  
Common Diseases ◽  
Age Related ◽  
Old Drugs

A hyper-specialization characterizes modern medicine with the consequence of classifying the various diseases of the body into unrelated categories. Such a broad diversification of medicine goes in the opposite direction of physics, which eagerly looks for unification. We argue that unification should also apply to medicine. In accordance with the second principle of thermodynamics, the cell must release its entropy either in the form of heat (catabolism) or biomass (anabolism). There is a decreased flow of entropy outside the body due to an age-related reduction in mitochondrial entropy yield resulting in increased release of entropy in the form of biomass. This shift toward anabolism has been known in oncology as Warburg-effect. The shift toward anabolism has been reported in most diseases. This quest for a single framework is reinforced by the fact that inflammation (also called the immune response) is involved in nearly every disease. This strongly suggests that despite their apparent disparity, there is an underlying unity in the diseases. This also offers guidelines for the repurposing of old drugs.

Chinese Medicine Treatment of Cytokine Storm Caused by COVID-19

2020 ◽  
Vol 22 (7) ◽  
Author(s):  
Youfu Ke ◽  
Jianli Cui
Keyword(s):  
Immune Response ◽  
Chinese Medicine ◽  
Blood Stasis ◽  
The Body ◽  
Cochrane Library ◽  
Complex Signal ◽  
Cytokine Storm ◽  
China National Knowledge Infrastructure ◽  
Multiple Targets ◽  
Chinese Medicine Treatment

Context: COVID-19 has turned into a pandemic, threatening the lives of millions of people worldwide. Research has found that some COVID-19 patients will suddenly aggravate, resulting in a cytokine storm, respiratory distress syndrome, and death. It is necessary to articulate the mechanism of cytokine storm and propose a Chinese medicine treatment strategy for COVID-19. Evidence Acquisition: A literature search was conducted using five databases on April 30, 2020, including PubMed, Google Scholar, Cochrane Library, China National Knowledge Infrastructure (CNKI), and Wanfang Data with the keywords of “cytokine storm AND Chinese medicine AND COVID-19 “, “cytokine storm AND Chinese medicine AND SARS-CoV-2”. The outcome of interest was the concept and mechanism of cytokine storm, the characteristics, and the Chinese medicine treatment of COVID-19 cytokine storm, etc. A total of 43 articles were retrieved after removing duplicate articles. Results: The cytokine storm is also called cytokine cascade. The body overreacts with positive feedback without negative feedback, making a variety of abnormal cytokines accumulations, triggering a cytokine storm. COVID-19 cytokine storm does not occur in the early stages, but only after a period of development, it attacks not only the lungs but also the heart, kidneys, and other organs. The key pathogenesis is “toxins and blood stasis, lung failure” in Chinese medicine. The treatment is detoxification, removing blood stasis, and nourishing the lung. Chinese medicine should comprehensively regulate multiple targets and multiple pathways to intervene in the immune regulation of the body to intercept the progress of inflammation and focus on the integration of Chinese medicine with Western medicine to combine anti-virus and anti-inflammatory therapy. Conclusions: The immune response caused by cytokine storm is a complex signal network with multiple targets and pathways and various cytokines acting together. Immunomodulation can balance the excessive inflammatory response and effectively control the replication and spread of SARS-CoV-2. Returning the immune response to a balanced state is an ideal method for treating COVID-19 cytokine storm. Chinese medicine can achieve overall coordination and balance. Nevertheless, the pharmacology of Chinese medicine must be further studied, and the mechanism of cytokine storm treatment should be thoroughly clarified.

scholarly journals Peculiarities of age-related morphological changes in the dermal-hair cover of the Pamir yak ecotype bred in the mountain zone of Northern Tajikistan

2021 ◽  
pp. 97-106
Author(s):  
A. R. Mukhiddinov ◽  
N. Sh. Kamolov
Keyword(s):  
Body Weight ◽  
Morphological Changes ◽  
The Body ◽  
Skin Thickness ◽  
Hair Length ◽  
Protective Function ◽  
Age Related ◽  
Live Body Weight ◽  
One Year ◽  
Age Related Changes

In the process of animal adaptation to changing environmental conditions, the hair cover, which is known to perform a heat-protective function primarily, plays a significant role. The hair cover of animals undergoes changes depending on the season of the year and the natural and climatic zone in which the animals live. It has its peculiarities in different species (breeds). The nature and features of the hair cover of animals are often used by scientists to compile zoological systematics, assess the health and constitution types of animals, their acclimatisation ability, etc. In this article, the authors reviewed age-related changes in weight, size, thickness and tightness of animal skins (changes in skin thickness from the ridge to the floor) and features of the hair cover of the skin’s yaks of Northern Tajikistan. The authors also noted that in all animals, the weight of hides increases in proportion to the rise in live body weight. The absolute importance of skins, up to the age of half a year of yaks, is almost two times higher than cattle. In yaks at one- and three years old, the thick- ness of skins at the standard point in these animals is somewhat comparable. But the thickness of the pelts in the collar and area of hiding yak next to the floor remains higher by about 25-40%. Yaks are known to have three main categories of hair: long hairs (in the abdominal region of the hide and on the tail), short hairs (on the rump, neck and back) and down inches (in all parts of the animal’s fur). Long coats are also the thickest. The hair length of newborn yaks is 187.60±2.66 mm, of one-year-old yaks 452.50±2.52 mm, and of six-year-old yaks, it reaches 475 mm. The authors determined the total amount of hair of different categories in the three topographic parts of the body: in the rump, the sum of hair is 1545 hair units; in the collar part, the sum of hair is 1590 hair units; in the abdominal area of the body the sum of hair is 1770 hair units. The collar and rump do not have long hairs, unlike the abdomen. Downy hairs are characteristic of all parts of the hide but predominate in the scruff and collar. The dynamics of age-related changes in the hair cover of yaks have been determined.

scholarly journals Histamine and Antihistamines / Histamin i antihistamini

2015 ◽  
Vol 32 (1) ◽  
pp. 7-22
Author(s):  
Nikola Stojković ◽  
Snežana Cekić ◽  
Milica Ristov ◽  
Marko Ristić ◽  
Davor Đukić ◽  
...  
Keyword(s):  
Immune Response ◽  
Immune Cells ◽  
Allergic Diseases ◽  
The Body ◽  
Steady Increase ◽  
Cellular Events ◽  
Th1 And Th2 ◽  
Natural Component ◽  
Selection Of

Summary In recent years, there has been a steady increase in the prevalence of allergic diseases. Allergic immune response represents a complex network of cellular events involving numerous immune cells and mediators. It represents the interaction of innate and acquired immune response. The key role in the immune cascade is taken by histamine, a natural component of the body, which in the allergic inflammatory response is releasesd by the mast cells and basophils. The aim of this study was to highlight the role of histamine in allergic immunological events, their effect on Th1 and Th2 subpopulation of lymphocytes and the production of the corresponding cytokines, as well as the role of histamine blockers in the treatment of these conditions. Histamine achieves its effect by binding to the four types of its receptors, which are widely distributed in the body. Histamine blockers block a numerous effects of histamine by binding to these receptors. As a highly selective second-generation antihistamine, cetirizine not only achieves its effects by binding to H1 receptors, but also attenuates numerous events during the inflammatory process. Knowledge of the effects of histamine blockers, including cetirizine, may lead to the selection of proper therapy for the treatment of allegic diseases.

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