Gender Bias in Agricultural Child Labor: Evidence from Survey Design Experiments

ABSTRACT Agricultural labor accounts for the largest share of child labor worldwide. Yet, measurement of farm labor statistics is challenging due to its inherent seasonality, variable and irregular work schedules, and the varying saliencies of individuals’ work activities. The problem is further complicated by the presence of widespread gender stratification of work and social lives. This study reports the findings of three randomized survey design interventions over the agricultural coffee calendar in rural Ethiopia to address whether response by proxy rather than by self-report has effects on the measurement of child labor statistics within and across seasons. While the estimates do not report differences for boys across all seasons, the analysis shows sizable self/proxy discrepancies in child labor statistics for girls. Overall, the results highlight concerns on the use of survey proxy respondents in agricultural labor, particularly for girls. The main findings have important implications for policymakers about data collection in rural areas in developing countries.

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Gender bias in communal leadership: examining servant leadership

Journal of Managerial Psychology ◽

10.1108/jmp-10-2014-0292 ◽

2016 ◽

Vol 31 (4) ◽

pp. 837-849 ◽

Cited By ~ 11

Author(s):

Mary Hogue

Keyword(s):

Servant Leadership ◽

Gender Bias ◽

Survey Design ◽

Leader Behavior ◽

Hostile Sexism ◽

Servant Leader ◽

Role Congruity Theory ◽

Empirical Examination ◽

Content Type ◽

Theoretical Integration

Purpose – Theory suggests gender bias in leadership occurs through a cognitive mismatch between thoughts of women and leaders. As leadership incorporates more feminine qualities, gender bias disadvantaging women should be reduced. The purpose of this paper is to present an empirical investigation of that argument by examining gender bias in servant leadership. Predictions made by role congruity theory were investigated with principles from leader categorization theory. Design/methodology/approach – In a survey design, 201 working college students from the Midwest USA were presented with either a female or male leader, each with identical servant leader attributes. Participants reported their expectations for the leader’s future behavior. Findings – Expectations for servant leader behavior were greater for the woman than man leader, and expectations for authoritarian behavior were greater for the man than woman leader. Expectations for servant leader behavior were greater from the woman than man participants, and expectations for authoritarian behavior were greater from the man than woman participants, a difference that was enhanced by men’s hostile sexism. Research limitations/implications – Although limited by the sample of working students, important implications are the importance of using theoretical integration to examine contemporary forms of leadership for changing gender bias, considerations of self-concept in bias and examining perceiver characteristics when investigating gender bias. Practical implications – Awareness of the reduction of gender bias in communal leadership may allow an increase of leadership opportunities for women and leadership attempts by women. Originality/value – This is the first empirical examination of gender bias in communal leadership through theoretical integration.

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