The limits of the Japanese Jesuits’ adaptability in Sengoku period

The period before the Portuguese arrival in Japan, called Sengoku period，is mainly described by its political instability，uninterrupted wars and power fragmentation. Meanwhile describing the political events of the period and the Christian mission (leaded mainly by the Jesuits), this article aims to understand the relationship between this sengoku period instability and the initial acceptance, by the Japanese, of a foreigner religion.

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Lessons from the Japanese ninja: on achieving a higher trade equilibrium under anarchy and private constitutions

Constitutional Political Economy ◽

10.1007/s10602-021-09354-6 ◽

2021 ◽

Author(s):

Vladimir V. Maltsev

Keyword(s):

Civil War ◽

Sixteenth Century ◽

Institutional Environment ◽

Economic Conditions ◽

Mountainous Regions ◽

Thin Markets ◽

Governing Institutions ◽

Organizational Costs ◽

Sengoku Period

AbstractThis paper investigates the possibility of anarchy achieving a high trade equilibrium via the example of ninja communities in Japan. Initially, ninjas in the mountainous regions of Iga and Kōka were stateless, constantly feuded, and had few opportunities for exchange. With the advent of civil war in the sixteenth century, ninjas’ economic conditions changed. The mercenary market significantly expanded and presented great profit opportunities for the ninjas. However, instead of creating a formal government to move to a higher trade equilibrium, the ninjas resorted to forming voluntary confederations held together by private constitutions. I argue that this development was possible because the institutional environment of the Sengoku period enabled a framework of self-governing institutions and principles. The ninjas were able to build on this framework with very low organizational costs. As a result, the ninjas were able to reap large economic gains on the mercenary market while remaining stateless—a seemingly paradoxical development that goes against the standard dichotomy of “states and thick markets” versus “anarchy and thin markets.”

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