Human Impact on Direct and Diffuse Solar Radiation during the Industrial Era

2007 ◽  
Vol 20 (19) ◽  
pp. 4874-4883 ◽  
Author(s):  
Maria M. Kvalevåg ◽  
Gunnar Myhre
Keyword(s):  
Water Vapor ◽  
Solar Radiation ◽  
Central Africa ◽  
Radiative Transfer Model ◽  
Transfer Model ◽  
Physical Processes ◽  
Diffuse Solar Radiation ◽  
Global Dimming ◽  
Aerosol Effects ◽  
The Impact

Abstract In this study the direct and diffuse solar radiation changes are estimated, and they contribute to the understanding of the observed global dimming and the more recent global brightening during the industrial era. Using a multistream radiative transfer model, the authors calculate the impact of changes in ozone, NO2, water vapor, CH4, CO2, direct and indirect aerosol effects, contrails, and aviation-induced cirrus on solar irradiances at the surface. The results show that dimming is most pronounced in central Africa, Southeast Asia, Europe, and northeast America. Human activity during the industrial era is calculated and accounts for a decrease in direct solar radiation at the surface of up to 30 W m−2 (30%–40%) and an increase in diffuse solar radiation of up to 20 W m−2. The physical processes that lead to the changes in direct and diffuse solar radiation are found to be remarkably different and the authors explain which mechanisms are responsible for the observed changes.

scholarly journals Cloud sensitivity studies for stratospheric and lower mesospheric ozone profile retrievals from measurements of limb-scattered solar radiation

2009 ◽  
Vol 2 (2) ◽  
pp. 653-678 ◽  
Author(s):  
T. Sonkaew ◽  
V. V. Rozanov ◽  
C. von Savigny ◽  
A. Rozanov ◽  
H. Bovensmann ◽  
...  
Keyword(s):  
Solar Radiation ◽  
Relative Error ◽  
Optical Thickness ◽  
Radiative Transfer Model ◽  
Transfer Model ◽  
Absorption Bands ◽  
Ozone Profile ◽  
Mesospheric Ozone ◽  
Cloud Optical Thickness ◽  
The Impact

Abstract. Clouds in the atmosphere play an important role in reflection, absorption and transmission of solar radiation and thus affect trace gas retrievals. The main goal of this paper is to examine the sensitivity of stratospheric and lower mesospheric ozone retrievals from limb-scattered radiance measurements to clouds using the SCIATRAN radiative transfer model and retrieval package. The retrieval approach employed is optimal estimation, and the considered clouds are vertically and horizontally homogeneous. Assuming an aerosol-free atmosphere and Mie phase functions for cloud particles, we compute the relative error of ozone profile retrievals in a cloudy atmosphere if clouds are neglected in the retrieval. To access altitudes from the lower stratosphere up to the lower mesosphere, we combine the retrievals in the Chappuis and Hartley ozone absorption bands. We find significant cloud sensitivity of the limb ozone retrievals in the Chappuis bands at lower stratospheric altitudes. The relative error in the retrieved ozone concentrations gradually decreases with increasing altitude and becomes negligible above approximately 40 km. The parameters with the largest impact on the ozone retrievals are cloud optical thickness, ground albedo and solar zenith angle. Clouds with different geometrical thicknesses or different cloud altitudes have a similar impact on the ozone retrievals for a given cloud optical thickness value, if the clouds are outside the field of view of the instrument. The effective radius of water droplets has a small influence on the error, i.e., less than 0.5% at altitudes above the cloud top height. Furthermore, the impact of clouds on the ozone profile retrievals was found to have a rather small dependence on the solar azimuth angle (less than 1% for all possible azimuth angles). For the most frequent cloud types, the total error is below 6% above 15 km altitude, if clouds are completely neglected in the retrieval. Neglecting clouds in the ozone profile retrievals generally leads to a low bias for a low ground albedo and to a high bias for a high ground albedo, assuming that the ground albedo is well known.

scholarly journals Performance of the Line-By-Line Radiative Transfer Model (LBLRTM) for temperature, water vapor, and trace gas retrievals: recent updates evaluated with IASI case studies

2013 ◽  
Vol 13 (14) ◽  
pp. 6687-6711 ◽  
Author(s):  
M. J. Alvarado ◽  
V. H. Payne ◽  
E. J. Mlawer ◽  
G. Uymin ◽  
M. W. Shephard ◽  
...  
Keyword(s):  
Water Vapor ◽  
Radiative Transfer ◽  
Fixed Ratio ◽  
Satellite Observations ◽  
Radiative Transfer Model ◽  
Transfer Model ◽  
Temperature Profiles ◽  
A Posteriori ◽  
The Impact ◽  
Temperature Water

Abstract. Modern data assimilation algorithms depend on accurate infrared spectroscopy in order to make use of the information related to temperature, water vapor (H2O), and other trace gases provided by satellite observations. Reducing the uncertainties in our knowledge of spectroscopic line parameters and continuum absorption is thus important to improve the application of satellite data to weather forecasting. Here we present the results of a rigorous validation of spectroscopic updates to an advanced radiative transfer model, the Line-By-Line Radiative Transfer Model (LBLRTM), against a global dataset of 120 near-nadir, over-ocean, nighttime spectra from the Infrared Atmospheric Sounding Interferometer (IASI). We compare calculations from the latest version of LBLRTM (v12.1) to those from a previous version (v9.4+) to determine the impact of spectroscopic updates to the model on spectral residuals as well as retrieved temperature and H2O profiles. We show that the spectroscopy in the CO2 ν2 and ν3 bands is significantly improved in LBLRTM v12.1 relative to v9.4+, and that these spectroscopic updates lead to mean changes of ~0.5 K in the retrieved vertical temperature profiles between the surface and 10 hPa, with the sign of the change and the variability among cases depending on altitude. We also find that temperature retrievals using each of these two CO2 bands are remarkably consistent in LBLRTM v12.1, potentially allowing these bands to be used to retrieve atmospheric temperature simultaneously. The updated H2O spectroscopy in LBLRTM v12.1 substantially improves the a posteriori residuals in the P-branch of the H2O ν2 band, while the improvements in the R-branch are more modest. The H2O amounts retrieved with LBLRTM v12.1 are on average 14% lower between 100 and 200 hPa, 42% higher near 562 hPa, and 31% higher near the surface compared to the amounts retrieved with v9.4+ due to a combination of the different retrieved temperature profiles and the updated H2O spectroscopy. We also find that the use of a fixed ratio of HDO to H2O in LBLRTM may be responsible for a significant fraction of the remaining bias in the P-branch relative to the R-branch of the H2O ν2 band. There were no changes to O3 spectroscopy between the two model versions, and so both versions give positive a posteriori residuals of ~ 0.3 K in the R-branch of the O3 ν3 band. While the updates to the H2O self-continuum employed by LBLRTM v12.1 have clearly improved the match with observations near the CO2 ν3 band head, we find that these updates have significantly degraded the match with observations in the fundamental band of CO. Finally, significant systematic a posteriori residuals remain in the ν4 band of CH4, but the magnitude of the positive bias in the retrieved mixing ratios is reduced in LBLRTM v12.1, suggesting that the updated spectroscopy could improve retrievals of CH4 from satellite observations.

Drivers of Surface Downwelling Longwave Irradiance Changes from 1984 through 2017

2021 ◽  
Author(s):  
Joseph Clark
Keyword(s):  
Water Vapor ◽  
Greenhouse Gases ◽  
Atmospheric Temperature ◽  
Temporal Variations ◽  
Spatial And Temporal Variations ◽  
Radiative Transfer Model ◽  
Transfer Model ◽  
Atmospheric Gases ◽  
Background Temperature ◽  
The Impact

<p>Relatively few studies have taken observationally driven approaches toward understanding the impact that atmospheric gases and temperatures have on surface downwelling longwave irradiance (SDLI) changes. This is despite the fact that changes in SDLI contribute significantly to climate change. Using reanalysis, observations, and the Rapid Radiative Transfer Model Global (RRTMG; Mlawer et al. 1997; Iacono et al. 2008), we linearly separate the contributions to SDLI changes from 1984 through 2017 caused by the following variables: atmospheric temperature, H<sub>2</sub>O, CO<sub>2</sub>, CH<sub>4</sub>, N<sub>2</sub>O, CFC-11, and CFC-12. The results show that spatial and temporal variations in SDLI are primarily caused by spatial and temporal variations in atmospheric temperatures and water vapor amounts. Specifically, we find that atmospheric temperatures and water vapor amounts contribute about 10 times more to SDLI variations from 1984 through 2017 than the remaining greenhouse gases. Climatologically, spatial variability in atmospheric temperature and water vapor also play a role in determining the impact on SDLI of CO<sub>2</sub>, CH<sub>4</sub>, N<sub>2</sub>O, CFC-11, and CFC-12. SDLI trends directly attributable to CO<sub>2</sub>, CH<sub>4</sub>, N<sub>2</sub>O, CFC-11, and CFC-12 are strongest over regions with climatologically high temperatures and low water vapor amounts. In other words, the impact of the greenhouse gases varies in space, with its strength depending on the background temperature and moisture fields, even if the change in gas mixing ratio is spatially uniform. Finally, CO<sub>2 </sub>contributed 10 times more to the SDLI trends of 0.05-0.30 W m<sup>-2</sup> / decade (depending on location) from 1984 through 2017 than any other greenhouse gas.</p><p> </p><p><strong>References</strong></p>

scholarly journals Simulation of solar radiation during a total solar eclipse: a challenge for radiative transfer

2007 ◽  
Vol 7 (1) ◽  
pp. 499-535
Author(s):  
C. Emde ◽  
B. Mayer
Keyword(s):  
Solar Radiation ◽  
Radiative Transfer ◽  
Solar Eclipse ◽  
Monte Carlo Model ◽  
Three Dimensional ◽  
Diffuse Radiation ◽  
Radiative Transfer Model ◽  
Natural Phenomenon ◽  
Transfer Model ◽  
Diffuse Solar Radiation

Abstract. A solar eclipse is a rare but spectacular natural phenomenon and furthermore it is a challenge for radiative transfer modeling. Whereas a simple one-dimensional radiative transfer model with reduced solar irradiance at the top of the atmosphere can be used to calculate the brightness during partial eclipses a much more sophisticated model is required to calculate the brightness (i.e. the diffuse radiation) during the total eclipse. The reason is that radiation reaching a detector in the shadow gets there exclusively by horizontal (three-dimensional) transport of photons in a spherical shell atmosphere. In this study the first accurate simulations are presented examplified by the solar eclipse at 29 March 2006. Using a backward Monte Carlo model we calculated the diffuse radiation in the umbra and simulated the changing colors of the sky. Radiance and irradiance are decreased by 3 to 4 orders of magnitude, depending on wavelength. We found that aerosol has a comparatively small impact on the radiation in the umbra. We also estimated the contribution of the solar corona to the radiation under the umbra and found that it is negligible compared to the diffuse solar radiation in most parts of the spectrum. Spectrally resolved measurements in the umbra are not yet available. They are challenging due to the low intensity and therefore need careful planning. The new model may be used to support measurements during future solar eclipses.

scholarly journals Performance of the line-by-line radiative transfer model (LBLRTM) for temperature, water vapor, and trace gas retrievals: recent updates evaluated with IASI case studies

2013 ◽  
Vol 13 (1) ◽  
pp. 79-144 ◽  
Author(s):  
M. J. Alvarado ◽  
V. H. Payne ◽  
E. J. Mlawer ◽  
G. Uymin ◽  
M. W. Shephard ◽  
...  
Keyword(s):  
Water Vapor ◽  
Radiative Transfer ◽  
Weather Forecasting ◽  
Fixed Ratio ◽  
Satellite Observations ◽  
Radiative Transfer Model ◽  
Transfer Model ◽  
Temperature Profiles ◽  
The Impact ◽  
Temperature Water

Abstract. Modern data assimilation algorithms depend on accurate infrared spectroscopy in order to make use of the information related to temperature, water vapor (H2O), and other trace gases provided by satellite observations. Reducing the uncertainties in our knowledge of spectroscopic line parameters and continuum absorption is thus critical to improving the application of satellite data to weather forecasting. Here we present the results of a rigorous validation of spectroscopic updates to an advanced radiative transfer model, the Line-By-Line Radiative Transfer Model (LBLRTM), against a global dataset of 120 near-nadir, over-ocean, nighttime spectra from the Infrared Atmospheric Sounding Instrument (IASI). We compare calculations from the latest version of LBLRTM (v12.1) to those from a previous version (v9.4+) to determine the impact of spectroscopic updates to the model on spectral residuals as well as retrieved temperature and H2O profiles. We show that the spectroscopy in the CO2 ν2 and ν3 bands is significantly improved in LBLRTM v12.1 relative to v9.4+, and that these spectroscopic updates lead to changes of ~0.5 K in the retrieved vertical temperature profiles below 10 hPa, with the sign of the change and the variability among cases depending on altitude. We also find that temperature retrievals using each of these two CO2 bands are remarkably consistent in LBLRTM v12.1, potentially allowing these bands to be used to retrieve atmospheric temperature simultaneously. The updated H2O spectroscopy in LBLRTM v12.1 substantially improves the residuals in the P-branch of the H2O ν2 band, while the improvements in the R-branch are more modest. The H2O amounts retrieved with LBLRTM v12.1 are on average 14% lower between 100 and 200 hPa, 42% higher near 562 hPa, and 31% higher near the surface compared to the amounts retrieved with v9.4+ due to a combination of the different retrieved temperature profiles and the updated H2O spectroscopy. We also find that the use of a fixed ratio of HDO to H2O in LBLRTM may be responsible for a significant fraction of the remaining bias in the P-branch of the H2O ν2 band. There were no changes to O3 spectroscopy between the two model versions, and so both versions gives positive residuals of ~0.3 K in the R-branch of the O3 ν3 band. While the updates to the H2O self continuum employed by LBLRTM v12.1 have clearly improved the match with observations near the CO2 ν3 bandhead, we find that these updates have significantly degraded the match with observations in the fundamental band of CO. Finally, significant systematic residuals remain in the ν4 band of CH4, but the magnitude of the positive bias in the retrieved mixing ratios is reduced in LBLRTM v12.1, suggesting that the updated spectroscopy could improve retrievals of CH4 from satellite observations.

scholarly journals Cloud sensitivity studies for stratospheric and lower mesospheric ozone profile retrievals from measurements of limb scattered solar radiation

2009 ◽  
Vol 2 (1) ◽  
pp. 379-438 ◽  
Author(s):  
T. Sonkaew ◽  
V. V. Rozanov ◽  
C. von Savigny ◽  
A. Rozanov ◽  
H. Bovensmann ◽  
...  
Keyword(s):  
Solar Radiation ◽  
Relative Error ◽  
Optical Thickness ◽  
Radiative Transfer Model ◽  
Transfer Model ◽  
Absorption Bands ◽  
Ozone Profile ◽  
Mesospheric Ozone ◽  
Cloud Optical Thickness ◽  
The Impact

Abstract. Clouds in the atmosphere play an important role in reflection, absorption and transmission of solar radiation affecting trace gas retrievals. The main goal of this paper is to examine the sensitivity of stratospheric and lower mesospheric ozone retrievals from limb-scattered radiance measurements to clouds using the SCIATRAN radiative transfer model and retrieval package. Assuming an aerosol-free atmosphere and Mie phase functions for cloud particles, we compute the relative error of ozone profile retrievals in a cloudy atmosphere if clouds are neglected in the retrieval. To access altitudes from the lower stratosphere up to lower mesosphere, we combine the retrievals in the Chappuis and Hartley ozone absorption bands. We find significant cloud sensitivity of the limb ozone retrievals in the Chappuis bands at lower stratospheric altitudes. The relative error in the retrieved ozone concentrations gradually decreases with increasing altitude and becomes negligible above about 40 km. The parameters with the largest impact on the ozone retrievals are cloud optical thickness, ground albedo and solar zenith angle. Clouds with different geometrical thicknesses or different cloud altitudes have a similar impact on the ozone retrievals for a given cloud optical thickness value, if the clouds are outside the field of view of the instrument. The effective radius of water droplets has a small influence on the error, i.e., less than 0.5% at altitudes above the cloud top height. Furthermore, the impact of clouds on the ozone profile retrievals was found to have a rather small dependence on the solar azimuth angle (less than 1% for all possible azimuth angles). For the most frequent cloud types the total error is below 6% above 15 km altitude, if clouds are completely neglected in the retrieval. Neglecting clouds in the ozone profile retrievals generally leads to a low bias for a low ground albedo and to a high bias for a high ground albedo, assuming that the ground albedo is well known.

scholarly journals Proposal to Refine Solar Radiation of Typical Meteorological Year Database and Evaluation on the Influence of Air-Conditioning Load

Atmosphere ◽  
2021 ◽  
Vol 12 (4) ◽  
pp. 524
Author(s):  
Jihui Yuan ◽  
Kazuo Emura ◽  
Craig Farnham
Keyword(s):  
Solar Radiation ◽  
Air Conditioning ◽  
Energy Savings ◽  
Energy Resource ◽  
Global Solar Radiation ◽  
Resource Assessment ◽  
Weather Data ◽  
Diffuse Solar Radiation ◽  
Chinese Standard ◽  
The Impact

The Typical meteorological year (TMY) database is often used to calculate air-conditioning loads, and it directly affects the building energy savings design. Among four kinds of TMY databases in China—including Chinese Typical Year Weather (CTYW), International Weather for Energy Calculations (IWEC), Solar Wind Energy Resource Assessment (SWERA) and Chinese Standard Weather Data (CSWD)—only CSWD is measures solar radiation, and it is most used in China. However, the solar radiation of CSWD is a measured daily value, and its hourly value is separated by models. It is found that the cloud ratio (diffuse solar radiation divided by global solar radiation) of CSWD is not realistic in months of May, June and July while compared to the other sets of TMY databases. In order to obtain a more accurate cloud ratio of CSWD for air-conditioning load calculation, this study aims to propose a method of refining the cloud ratio of CSWD in Shanghai, China, using observed solar radiation and the Perez model which is a separation model of high accuracy. In addition, the impact of cloud ratio on air-conditioning load has also been discussed in this paper. It is shown that the cloud ratio can yield a significant impact on the air conditioning load.

scholarly journals Ozone formation under low solar radiation in eastern China

2019 ◽  
Author(s):  
Xuexi Tie ◽  
Xin Long ◽  
Guohui Li ◽  
Shuyu Zhao ◽  
Jianming Xu
Keyword(s):  
Solar Radiation ◽  
Eastern China ◽  
Threshold Level ◽  
Radiative Transfer Model ◽  
Transfer Model ◽  
Oh Radicals ◽  
Chemical Production ◽  
The Past ◽  
Photochemical Production ◽  
Steady State Model

Abstract. PM2.5, a particulate matter with a diameter of 2.5 micrometers or less, is one of the major components of the air pollution in eastern China. In the past few years, China's government made strong efforts to reduce the PM2.5 pollutions. However, another important pollutant (ozone) becomes an important problem in eastern China. Ozone (O3) is produced by photochemistry, which requires solar radiation for the formation of O3. Under heavy PM2.5 pollution, the solar radiation is often depressed, and the photochemical production of O3 is prohibited. This study shows that during fall in eastern China, under heavy PM2.5 pollutions, there were often strong O3 photochemical productions, causing a co-occurrence of high PM2.5 and O3 concentrations. This co-occurrence of high PM2.5 and O3 is un-usual and is the main focus of this study. Recent measurements show that there were often high HONO surface concentrations in major Chinese mega cities, especially during daytime, with maximum concentrations ranging from 0.5 to 2 ppbv. It is also interesting to note that the high HONO concentrations were occurred during high aerosol concentration periods, suggesting that there were additional HONO surface sources in eastern China. Under the high daytime HONO concentrations, HONO can be photo-dissociated to be OH radicals, which enhance the photochemical production of O3. In order to study the above scientific issues, a radiative transfer model (TUV; Tropospheric Ultraviolet-Visible) is used in this study, and a chemical steady state model is established to calculate OH radical concentrations. The calculations show that by including the OH production of the photo-dissociated of HONO, the calculated OH concentrations are significantly higher than the values without including this production. For example, by including HONO production, the maximum of OH concentration under the high aerosol condition (AOD = 2.5) is similar to the value under low aerosol condition (AOD = 0.25) in the no-HONO case. This result suggests that even under the high aerosol condition, the chemical oxidizing process for O3 production can occurred, which explain the co-occurrence of high PM2.5 and high O3 in fall season in eastern China. However, the O3 concentrations were not significantly affected by the appearance of HONO in winter. This study shows that the seasonal variation of solar radiation plays important roles for controlling the OH production in winter. When the solar radiation is in a very low level in winter, it reaches the threshold level to prevent the OH chemical production, even by including the HONO production of OH. This study provides some important scientific highlights to better understand the O3 pollutions in eastern China.

scholarly journals A Satellite-Based Assessment of Upper-Tropospheric Water Vapor Measurements during AFWEX

2009 ◽  
Vol 48 (11) ◽  
pp. 2284-2294 ◽  
Author(s):  
Eui-Seok Chung ◽  
Brian J. Soden
Keyword(s):  
Water Vapor ◽  
Radiative Transfer Model ◽  
Transfer Model ◽  
Raman Lidar ◽  
Test Bed ◽  
Upper Troposphere ◽  
Brightness Temperatures ◽  
Radiation Test ◽  
Humidity Measurements ◽  
Atmospheric Radiation Measurement

Abstract Consistency of upper-tropospheric water vapor measurements from a variety of state-of-the-art instruments was assessed using collocated Geostationary Operational Environmental Satellite-8 (GOES-8) 6.7-μm brightness temperatures as a common benchmark during the Atmospheric Radiation Measurement Program (ARM) First International Satellite Cloud Climatology Project (ISCCP) Regional Experiment (FIRE) Water Vapor Experiment (AFWEX). To avoid uncertainties associated with the inversion of satellite-measured radiances into water vapor quantity, profiles of temperature and humidity observed from in situ, ground-based, and airborne instruments are inserted into a radiative transfer model to simulate the brightness temperature that the GOES-8 would have observed under those conditions (i.e., profile-to-radiance approach). Comparisons showed that Vaisala RS80-H radiosondes and Meteolabor Snow White chilled-mirror dewpoint hygrometers are systemically drier in the upper troposphere by ∼30%–40% relative to the GOES-8 measured upper-tropospheric humidity (UTH). By contrast, two ground-based Raman lidars (Cloud and Radiation Test Bed Raman lidar and scanning Raman lidar) and one airborne differential absorption lidar agree to within 10% of the GOES-8 measured UTH. These results indicate that upper-tropospheric water vapor can be monitored by these lidars and well-calibrated, stable geostationary satellites with an uncertainty of less than 10%, and that correction procedures are required to rectify the inherent deficiencies of humidity measurements in the upper troposphere from these radiosondes.

scholarly journals The impact of residential combustion emissions on atmospheric aerosol, human health, and climate

2016 ◽  
Vol 16 (2) ◽  
pp. 873-905 ◽  
Author(s):  
E. W. Butt ◽  
A. Rap ◽  
A. Schmidt ◽  
C. E. Scott ◽  
K. J. Pringle ◽  
...  
Keyword(s):  
Eastern Europe ◽  
Human Health ◽  
Atmospheric Aerosol ◽  
Radiative Transfer Model ◽  
Transfer Model ◽  
So2 Emissions ◽  
Residential Sector ◽  
Residential Combustion ◽  
Combustion Emissions ◽  
The Impact

Abstract. Combustion of fuels in the residential sector for cooking and heating results in the emission of aerosol and aerosol precursors impacting air quality, human health, and climate. Residential emissions are dominated by the combustion of solid fuels. We use a global aerosol microphysics model to simulate the impact of residential fuel combustion on atmospheric aerosol for the year 2000. The model underestimates black carbon (BC) and organic carbon (OC) mass concentrations observed over Asia, Eastern Europe, and Africa, with better prediction when carbonaceous emissions from the residential sector are doubled. Observed seasonal variability of BC and OC concentrations are better simulated when residential emissions include a seasonal cycle. The largest contributions of residential emissions to annual surface mean particulate matter (PM2.5) concentrations are simulated for East Asia, South Asia, and Eastern Europe. We use a concentration response function to estimate the human health impact due to long-term exposure to ambient PM2.5 from residential emissions. We estimate global annual excess adult (>  30 years of age) premature mortality (due to both cardiopulmonary disease and lung cancer) to be 308 000 (113 300–497 000, 5th to 95th percentile uncertainty range) for monthly varying residential emissions and 517 000 (192 000–827 000) when residential carbonaceous emissions are doubled. Mortality due to residential emissions is greatest in Asia, with China and India accounting for 50 % of simulated global excess mortality. Using an offline radiative transfer model we estimate that residential emissions exert a global annual mean direct radiative effect between −66 and +21 mW m−2, with sensitivity to the residential emission flux and the assumed ratio of BC, OC, and SO2 emissions. Residential emissions exert a global annual mean first aerosol indirect effect of between −52 and −16 mW m−2, which is sensitive to the assumed size distribution of carbonaceous emissions. Overall, our results demonstrate that reducing residential combustion emissions would have substantial benefits for human health through reductions in ambient PM2.5 concentrations.

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