The spirit of sport, morality, and hypoxic tents: logic and authenticity

2007 ◽  
Vol 32 (2) ◽  
pp. 289-296 ◽  
Author(s):  
David Cruise Malloy ◽  
Robert Kell ◽  
Rod Kelln
Keyword(s):  
Athletic Training ◽  
Athletic Performance ◽  
Aerobic Performance ◽  
Altitude Training ◽  
Blood Doping ◽  
Hypoxic Environment ◽  
Moral Behaviour ◽  
World Anti Doping Agency ◽  
Future Policy ◽  
Spirit Of Sport

The World Anti-Doping Agency (WADA) has recently made a decision to allow the use of hypoxic tents amid a significant amount of controversy over the morality of their use for athletic training purposes. Currently, altitude training is considered moral, but other means of improving aerobic performance are not; for example, blood doping. Altitude training and blood doping have similar results, but the methods by which the results are achieved differ greatly. The controversy lies in how the use of a hypoxic device falls within WADA’s philosophy, which will then dictate future policy. This paper discusses the influence of a hypoxic environment on human physiology, altitude training’s influence on athletic performance, the concept of authentic physiology, and moral behaviour that is the foundation for logical debate.

The biochemistry of drugs and doping methods used to enhance aerobic sport performance

2008 ◽  
Vol 44 ◽  
pp. 63-84 ◽  
Author(s):  
Chris E. Cooper
Keyword(s):  
Oxygen Uptake ◽  
Oxygen Content ◽  
Oxygen Delivery ◽  
Sport Performance ◽  
Blood Substitutes ◽  
Altitude Training ◽  
Blood Oxygen ◽  
Oxygen Carriers ◽  
Sports Performance ◽  
Blood Doping

Optimum performance in aerobic sports performance requires an efficient delivery to, and consumption of, oxygen by the exercising muscle. It is probable that maximal oxygen uptake in the athlete is multifactorial, being shared between cardiac output, blood oxygen content, muscle blood flow, oxygen diffusion from the blood to the cell and mitochondrial content. Of these, raising the blood oxygen content by raising the haematocrit is the simplest acute method to increase oxygen delivery and improve sport performance. Legal means of raising haematocrit include altitude training and hypoxic tents. Illegal means include blood doping and the administration of EPO (erythropoietin). The ability to make EPO by genetic means has resulted in an increase in its availability and use, although it is probable that recent testing methods may have had some impact. Less widely used illegal methods include the use of artificial blood oxygen carriers (the so-called ‘blood substitutes’). In principle these molecules could enhance aerobic sports performance; however, they would be readily detectable in urine and blood tests. An alternative to increasing the blood oxygen content is to increase the amount of oxygen that haemoglobin can deliver. It is possible to do this by using compounds that right-shift the haemoglobin dissociation curve (e.g. RSR13). There is a compromise between improving oxygen delivery at the muscle and losing oxygen uptake at the lung and it is unclear whether these reagents would enhance the performance of elite athletes. However, given the proven success of blood doping and EPO, attempts to manipulate these pathways are likely to lead to an ongoing battle between the athlete and the drug testers.

scholarly journals Androstenedione (a Natural Steroid and a Drug Supplement): A Comprehensive Review of Its Consumption, Metabolism, Health Effects, and Toxicity with Sex Differences

Molecules ◽  
2021 ◽  
Vol 26 (20) ◽  
pp. 6210
Author(s):  
Marwa T. Badawy ◽  
Mansour Sobeh ◽  
Jianbo Xiao ◽  
Mohamed A. Farag
Keyword(s):  
Health Effects ◽  
Athletic Performance ◽  
Adrenal Glands ◽  
Anabolic Steroids ◽  
Sexual Performance ◽  
Testosterone Levels ◽  
Populations At Risk ◽  
World Anti Doping Agency ◽  
Performance Enhancing Drugs ◽  
Oral Supplement

Androstenedione is a steroidal hormone produced in male and female gonads, as well as in the adrenal glands, and it is known for its key role in the production of estrogen and testosterone. Androstenedione is also sold as an oral supplement, that is being utilized to increase testosterone levels. Simply known as “andro” by athletes, it is commonly touted as a natural alternative to anabolic steroids. By boosting testosterone levels, it is thought to be an enhancer for athletic performance, build body muscles, reduce fats, increase energy, maintain healthy RBCs, and increase sexual performance. Nevertheless, several of these effects are not yet scientifically proven. Though commonly used as a supplement for body building, it is listed among performance-enhancing drugs (PEDs) which is banned by the World Anti-Doping Agency, as well as the International Olympic Committee. This review focuses on the action mechanism behind androstenedione’s health effects, and further side effects including clinical features, populations at risk, pharmacokinetics, metabolism, and toxicokinetics. A review of androstenedione regulation in drug doping is also presented.

scholarly journals Unnatural Technology in a “Natural” Practice? Human Nature and Performance-Enhancing Technology in Sport

Philosophies ◽  
2019 ◽  
Vol 4 (3) ◽  
pp. 35
Author(s):  
Francisco Javier Lopez Frias
Keyword(s):  
Human Nature ◽  
Work Ethic ◽  
Performance Enhancement ◽  
Protestant Ethic ◽  
Critical Questions ◽  
The World ◽  
World Anti Doping Agency ◽  
And Performance ◽  
Spirit Of Sport ◽  
Do So

(1) Background: The World Anti-Doping Agency (WADA) utilizes three criteria to include a technology in the List of Banned Substances and Methods—performance enhancement, health, and the spirit of sport. The latter is arguably the most fundamental one, as WADA justifies the anti-doping mission by appealing to it. (2) Method: Given the interrelationship among the notions of “human nature,” “natural talent,” and “sport,” I investigate what view of human nature underpins the “spirit of sport” criterion. To do so, I focus on both WADA’s official documents and scholarly formulations of the spirit of sport (that align with that of WADA). (3) Results: I show that the value attributed to excellence and effort in WADA’s formulation of the “spirit of sport” criterion has its roots in the notion of human nature of the work ethic that resulted from the secularization of the Protestant ethic. (4) Conclusion: Drawing on my analysis of the “spirit of sport” criterion, I pose critical questions concerning the justification of WADA’s anti-doping campaign and a tentative solution to move forward in the debate.

scholarly journals Blood doping and its detection

Blood ◽  
2011 ◽  
Vol 118 (9) ◽  
pp. 2395-2404 ◽  
Author(s):  
Wolfgang Jelkmann ◽  
Carsten Lundby
Keyword(s):  
Maximal Exercise ◽  
Red Blood Cell Transfusion ◽  
Blood Doping ◽  
Clinical Disorders ◽  
The World ◽  
Key Factor ◽  
World Anti Doping Agency ◽  
Hemoglobin Mass ◽  
Maximal Exercise Capacity ◽  
Blood Profiles

AbstractHemoglobin mass is a key factor for maximal exercise capacity. Some athletes apply prohibited techniques and substances with intent to increase hemoglobin mass and physical performance, and this is often difficult to prove directly. Autologous red blood cell transfusion cannot be traced on reinfusion, and also recombinant erythropoietic proteins are detectable only within a certain timeframe. Novel erythropoietic substances, such as mimetics of erythropoietin (Epo) and activators of the Epo gene, may soon enter the sports scene. In addition, Epo gene transfer maneuvers are imaginable. Effective since December 2009, the World Anti-Doping Agency has therefore implemented “Athlete Biologic Passport Operating Guidelines,” which are based on the monitoring of several parameters for mature red blood cells and reticulocytes. Blood doping may be assumed, when these parameters change in a nonphysiologic way. Hematologists should be familiar with blood doping practices as they may play an important role in evaluating blood profiles of athletes with respect to manipulations, as contrasted with the established diagnosis of clinical disorders and genetic variations.

ATHLETIC PERFORMANCE OF SWIMMERS AFTER ALTITUDE TRAINING (2,300 M ABOVE SEA LEVEL) IN VIEW OF THEIR BLOOD MORPHOLOGY CHANGES

2012 ◽  
Vol 29 (2) ◽  
pp. 115-120
Author(s):  
Marcin Siewierski ◽  
Paweł Słomiński ◽  
Robert Białecki ◽  
Jakub Adamczyk
Keyword(s):  
Sea Level ◽  
Athletic Performance ◽  
Altitude Training ◽  
Blood Morphology ◽  
Morphology Changes

A Single High-Altitude Training Bout Improves High-Altitude Aerobic Performance Following 1 Week of Low-Altitude Training

2011 ◽  
Vol 43 (Suppl 1) ◽  
pp. 284
Author(s):  
Brady D. Andersen ◽  
Daniel E. Turk ◽  
Robert W. Gotshall ◽  
Matthew S. Hickey ◽  
Richard G. Israel ◽  
...  
Keyword(s):  
High Altitude ◽  
Aerobic Performance ◽  
Altitude Training ◽  
Low Altitude

Haemoglobin, Blood Volume, Cardiac Function, and Aerobic Power

1999 ◽  
Vol 24 (1) ◽  
pp. 54-65 ◽  
Author(s):  
Norman Gledhill ◽  
Darren Warburton ◽  
Veronica Jamnik
Keyword(s):  
Cardiac Output ◽  
Aerobic Power ◽  
Endurance Performance ◽  
Endurance Athletes ◽  
Aerobic Performance ◽  
Arterial Oxygen ◽  
Blood Doping ◽  
Arterial Oxygen Content ◽  
The Difference ◽  
Key Words Blood

Alterations in [Hb], which are mediated through changes in arterial oxygen content, and alterations in BV, which are mediated through changes in cardiac output [Formula: see text] have a significant effect on both [Formula: see text] and aerobic performance. If BV is held constant, a decrease in [Hb] (anaemia) causes a decrease in [Formula: see text] and aerobic performance, while an increase in [Hb] (blood doping) causes an increase in [Formula: see text] and aerobic performance. If [Hb] is held constant, an increase in BV can cause an increase in both [Formula: see text] and aerobic performance, while a decrease in BV can cause a decrease in both [Formula: see text] and aerobic performance. In addition, an increase in BV can compensate for moderate reductions in [Hb] through increases in [Formula: see text], allowing [Formula: see text] to remain unchanged or even increase. Also, a large portion of the difference in the enhanced cardiovascular function of endurance athletes is due to their high BV and the resultant enhancement of diastolic function. Hence, optimizing both [Hb] and BV is a very important consideration for endurance performance. Key words: blood doping, sport anemia, stroke volume

Prohibition of artificial hypoxic environments in sports: health risks rather than ethics

2007 ◽  
Vol 32 (6) ◽  
pp. 1206-1207 ◽  
Author(s):  
Giuseppe Lippi ◽  
Massimo Franchini ◽  
Gian Cesare Guidi
Keyword(s):  
Health Risk ◽  
Health Risks ◽  
Blood Doping ◽  
The World ◽  
Recent Position ◽  
World Anti Doping Agency ◽  
Performance Enhancing

There is actual debate on a recent position of the World Anti-Doping Agency (WADA), which has cautiously refrained from banning hypoxic tents and intends to monitor their health risk. Regardless of teleological and deontological concepts, we highlight that the health risks inherent to the widespread use of these artificial performance-enhancing devices would make them as unsafe as other forms of blood doping.

scholarly journals Effects of passive muscle stiffness measured by Shear Wave Elastography, muscle thickness, and body mass index on athletic performance in adolescent female basketball players

2018 ◽  
Vol 20 (2) ◽  
pp. 170 ◽  
Author(s):  
Orkun Akkoc ◽  
Emine Caliskan ◽  
Zuhal Bayramoglu
Keyword(s):  
Athletic Performance ◽  
Vertical Jump ◽  
Muscle Thickness ◽  
Shear Wave Elastography ◽  
Significant Negative Correlation ◽  
Muscle Stiffness ◽  
Aerobic Performance ◽  
Adolescent Female ◽  
Passive Muscle ◽  
Passive Muscle Stiffness

Aims: Athletic performance in basketball comprises the contributions of anaerobic and aerobic performance. The aim was to investigate the effects of passive muscle stiffness, using shear wave elastography (SWE), as well as muscle thickness, and body mass index (BMI), on both aerobic and anaerobic performances in adolescent female basketball players.Material and methods: Anaerobic and aerobic (VO2max) performance was assessed using the vertical jump and shuttle run tests, respectively, in 24 volunteer adolescent female basketball players. Passive muscle stiffness of the rectus femoris (RF), gastrocnemius medialis (GM), gastrocnemius lateralis (GL) and soleus muscles were measured by SWE, and the thickness of each muscle was assessed by gray scale ultrasound. The BMI of each participant was also calculated. The relationship between vertical jump and VO2max values, and those of muscle stiffness, thickness, and BMI were investigated via Pearson’s correlation and multivariate linear regression analysis.Results: No significant correlation was observed between muscle stiffness and VO2max or vertical jump (p>0.05). There was significant negative correlation between GL thickness and VO2max (p=0.026), and soleus thickness and VO2max (p=0.046). There was also a significant negative correlation between BMI and VO2max (p=0.001). Conclusions: This preliminary work can be a reference for future research. Although our article indicates that passive muscle stiffness measured by SWE is not directly related to athletic performance, future comprehensive studies should be performed in order to illuminate the complex nature of muscles. The  maintenance of lower muscle thickness and optimal BMI may be associated with better aerobic performance.

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