scholarly journals Expansin-related proteins: biology, microbe–plant interactions and associated plant-defense responses

Microbiology ◽  
2020 ◽  
Vol 166 (11) ◽  
pp. 1007-1018 ◽  
Author(s):  
Delia A. Narváez-Barragán ◽  
Omar E. Tovar-Herrera ◽  
Lorenzo Segovia ◽  
Mario Serrano ◽  
Claudia Martinez-Anaya
Keyword(s):  
Cell Wall ◽  
Plant Cell Wall ◽  
Sequence Similarity ◽  
Plant Defence ◽  
Protein Detection ◽  
Defense Responses ◽  
Plant Colonization ◽  
Structural Level ◽  
Plant Interactions ◽  
Related Proteins

Expansins, cerato-platanins and swollenins (which we will henceforth refer to as expansin-related proteins) are a group of microbial proteins involved in microbe-plant interactions. Although they share very low sequence similarity, some of their composing domains are near-identical at the structural level. Expansin-related proteins have their target in the plant cell wall, in which they act through a non-enzymatic, but still uncharacterized, mechanism. In most cases, mutagenesis of expansin-related genes affects plant colonization or plant pathogenesis of different bacterial and fungal species, and thus, in many cases they are considered virulence factors. Additionally, plant treatment with expansin-related proteins activate several plant defenses resulting in the priming and protection towards subsequent pathogen encounters. Plant-defence responses induced by these proteins are reminiscent of pattern-triggered immunity or hypersensitive response in some cases. Plant immunity to expansin-related proteins could be caused by the following: (i) protein detection by specific host-cell receptors, (ii) alterations to the cell-wall-barrier properties sensed by the host, (iii) displacement of cell-wall polysaccharides detected by the host. Expansin-related proteins may also target polysaccharides on the wall of the microbes that produced them under certain physiological instances. Here, we review biochemical, evolutionary and biological aspects of these relatively understudied proteins and different immune responses they induce in plant hosts.

scholarly journals The Role of Arabinogalactan Type II Degradation in Plant-Microbe Interactions

2021 ◽  
Vol 12 ◽  
Author(s):  
Maria Guadalupe Villa-Rivera ◽  
Horacio Cano-Camacho ◽  
Everardo López-Romero ◽  
María Guadalupe Zavala-Páramo
Keyword(s):  
Cell Wall ◽  
Plant Defense ◽  
Plant Cell ◽  
Plant Cell Wall ◽  
Degradation Products ◽  
Hydrolytic Enzymes ◽  
Pathogenic Fungi ◽  
Plant Interactions ◽  
Root Tips ◽  
Microbe Interactions

Arabinogalactans (AGs) are structural polysaccharides of the plant cell wall. A small proportion of the AGs are associated with hemicellulose and pectin. Furthermore, AGs are associated with proteins forming the so-called arabinogalactan proteins (AGPs), which can be found in the plant cell wall or attached through a glycosylphosphatidylinositol (GPI) anchor to the plasma membrane. AGPs are a family of highly glycosylated proteins grouped with cell wall proteins rich in hydroxyproline. These glycoproteins have important and diverse functions in plants, such as growth, cellular differentiation, signaling, and microbe-plant interactions, and several reports suggest that carbohydrate components are crucial for AGP functions. In beneficial plant-microbe interactions, AGPs attract symbiotic species of fungi or bacteria, promote the development of infectious structures and the colonization of root tips, and furthermore, these interactions can activate plant defense mechanisms. On the other hand, plants secrete and accumulate AGPs at infection sites, creating cross-links with pectin. As part of the plant cell wall degradation machinery, beneficial and pathogenic fungi and bacteria can produce the enzymes necessary for the complete depolymerization of AGs including endo-β-(1,3), β-(1,4) and β-(1,6)-galactanases, β-(1,3/1,6) galactanases, α-L-arabinofuranosidases, β-L-arabinopyranosidases, and β-D-glucuronidases. These hydrolytic enzymes are secreted during plant-pathogen interactions and could have implications for the function of AGPs. It has been proposed that AGPs could prevent infection by pathogenic microorganisms because their degradation products generated by hydrolytic enzymes of pathogens function as damage-associated molecular patterns (DAMPs) eliciting the plant defense response. In this review, we describe the structure and function of AGs and AGPs as components of the plant cell wall. Additionally, we describe the set of enzymes secreted by microorganisms to degrade AGs from AGPs and its possible implication for plant-microbe interactions.

scholarly journals Biological Function(s) and Application (s) of Pectin and Pectin Degrading Enzymes

2018 ◽  
Vol 15 (1) ◽  
pp. 87-100 ◽  
Author(s):  
Puja Chandrayan
Keyword(s):  
Cell Wall ◽  
Structure Function ◽  
Plant Cell ◽  
Plant Cell Wall ◽  
Plant Defence ◽  
Glycoside Hydrolases ◽  
Limited Information ◽  
Thermostable Enzymes ◽  
Network Cell ◽  
Degrading Enzymes

Pectin is an integral part of plant cell wall and since centuries pectin extracted from plants is widely used in food and fruit juice processing. Moreover, in last half century, the applications have also invaded into many bio-processing applications such as pharmaceutical, bioenergy, textile, paper and tea processing. In these growing industries, the use of pectinases has grown with a significant amount i.e. approximately 10 % of total global enzyme market comes from pectinases. Herein comprehensive analyses of information related to structure and function of pectin in plant cell wall as well as structural classes of pectins have been discussed. The major function of pectin is in cementing the cellulose and hemicelluloses network, cell-cell adhesion and plant defence. Keeping the wide use of pectin in food industry and growing need of environment friendly technology for pectin extraction has accelerated the demand of pectin degrading enzymes (PDEs). PDEs are from three enzyme classes: carbohydrate esterases from CE8 and CE12 family, glycoside hydrolases from GH28 family and lyases from PL1, 2, 3, 9 and 10. We have reviewed the literature related to abundance and structure-function of these abovementioned enzymes from bacteria. From the current available literature, we found very limited information is present about thermostable PDEs. Hence, in future it could be a topic of study to gain the insight about structure-function of enzymes together with the expanded role of thermostable enzymes in development of bioprocesses based on these enzymes.

scholarly journals Oxidative burst: an early plant response to pathogen infection

1997 ◽  
Vol 322 (3) ◽  
pp. 681-692 ◽  
Author(s):  
Przemysław WOJTASZEK
Keyword(s):  
Hydrogen Peroxide ◽  
Cell Wall ◽  
Oxidative Burst ◽  
Systemic Acquired Resistance ◽  
Plant Cell Wall ◽  
Acquired Resistance ◽  
Plant Defence ◽  
Hypersensitive Cell Death ◽  
Oxidase System ◽  
Defence Responses

As plants are confined to the place where they grow, they have to develop a broad range of defence responses to cope with pathogenic infections. The oxidative burst, a rapid, transient, production of huge amounts of reactive oxygen species (ROS), is one of the earliest observable aspects of a plant's defence strategy. First this Review describes the chemistry of ROS (superoxide radical, hydrogen peroxide and hydroxyl radical). Secondly, the role of ROS in defence responses is demonstrated, and some important issues are considered, such as: (1) which of the ROS is a major building element of the oxidative burst; (2) the spatial and temporal regulation of the oxidative burst; and (3) differences in the plant's responses to biotic and abiotic elicitation. Thirdly, the relationships between the oxidative burst and other plant defence responses are indicated. These include: (1) an oxygen consumption, (2) the production of phytoalexins, (3) systemic acquired resistance, (4) immobilization of plant cell wall proteins, (5) changes in membrane permeability and ion fluxes and (6) a putative role in hypersensitive cell death. Wherever possible, the comparisons with models applicable to animal systems are presented. Finally, the question of the origin of ROS in the oxidative burst is considered, and two major hypotheses, (1) the action of NADPH oxidase system analogous to that of animal phagocytes, and (2) the pH-dependent generation of hydrogen peroxide by a cell wall peroxidase, are presented. On the basis of this material, a third ‘unifying’ hypothesis is presented, where transient changes in the pH of the cell wall compartment are indicated as a core phenomenon in evoking ROS production. Additionally, a germin/oxalate oxidase system which generates H2O2 in response to pathogenic infection is also described.

scholarly journals Action of Multiple Cell Wall–Degrading Enzymes Is Required for Elicitation of Innate Immune Responses During Xanthomonas oryzae pv. oryzae Infection in Rice

2016 ◽  
Vol 29 (8) ◽  
pp. 599-608 ◽  
Author(s):  
Lavanya Tayi ◽  
Roshan Maku ◽  
Hitendra Kumar Patel ◽  
Ramesh V. Sonti
Keyword(s):  
Cell Wall ◽  
Immune Responses ◽  
Plant Cell Wall ◽  
Defense Responses ◽  
Secretion System ◽  
Xanthomonas Oryzae ◽  
Cell Wall Degrading Enzymes ◽  
Degrading Enzymes ◽  
Type 3 Secretion System ◽  
Type 3

Xanthomonas oryzae pv. oryzae secretes a number of plant cell wall–degrading enzymes (CWDEs) whose purified preparations induce defense responses in rice. These defense responses are suppressed by X. oryzae pv. oryzae using type 3 secretion system (T3SS) effectors and a type 3 secretion system mutant (T3SS−) of X. oryzae pv. oryzae is an inducer of rice defense responses. We assessed the role of individual CWDEs in induction of rice defense responses during infection, by mutating them in the genetic background of a T3SS−. We mutated the genes for five different plant CWDEs secreted by X. oryzae pv. oryzae, including two cellulases (clsA and cbsA), one xylanase (xyn), one pectinase (pglA), and an esterase (lipA), singly in a T3SS− background. We have demonstrated that, as compared with a T3SS− of X. oryzae pv. oryzae, a cbsA−T3SS−, a clsA−T3SS−, and a xyn−T3SS− are deficient in induction of rice immune responses such as callose deposits and programmed cell death. In comparison, a lipA− T3SS− and a pglA−T3SS− is as efficient in induction of host defense responses as a T3SS−. Overall, these results indicate that the collective action of X. oryzae pv. oryzae–secreted ClsA, CbsA, and Xyn proteins is required for induction of rice defense responses during infection.

scholarly journals cDNA Cloning of a Sorghum Pathogenesis-Related Protein (PR-10) and Differential Expression of Defense-Related Genes Following Inoculation with Cochliobolus heterostrophus or Colletotrichum sublineolum

1999 ◽  
Vol 12 (6) ◽  
pp. 479-489 ◽  
Author(s):  
Sze-Chung Clive Lo ◽  
John D. Hipskind ◽  
Ralph L. Nicholson
Keyword(s):  
Fungal Pathogens ◽  
Sequence Similarity ◽  
Defense Responses ◽  
Cochliobolus Heterostrophus ◽  
Colletotrichum Sublineolum ◽  
Pathogenesis Related Protein ◽  
Pathogenesis Related ◽  
Time Courses ◽  
Related Proteins ◽  
Phytoalexin Synthesis

A sorghum cDNA clone was isolated by differential screening of a cDNA library prepared from mesocotyls (cultivar DK18) inoculated with fungal pathogens. The deduced translation product shows sequence similarity to a family of intracellular pathogenesis-related proteins (PR-10) with a potential ribonuclease function. We studied the accumulation of PR-10 and chalcone synthase (CHS) transcripts in mesocotyls following inoculation with Cochliobolus heterostrophus or Colletotrichum sublineolum. CHS is involved in phytoalexin synthesis in sorghum. Coordinate expression of PR-10 and CHS genes was localized in the area of inoculation along with the accumulation of phytoalexins. C. heterostrophus is a nonpathogen of sorghum and cytological studies indicated that cultivar DK18 is resistant to C. sublineolum, a sorghum pathogen. We demonstrated that the two fungi triggered different time courses of plant defense reactions. Inoculation with C. heterostrophus resulted in rapid accumulation of PR-10 and CHS transcripts after appressoria had become mature. Accumulation of these transcripts was delayed in plants inoculated with C. sublineolum until penetration of host tissue had been completed and infection vesicles had formed. Results suggest that different recognition events are involved in the expression of resistance to the two fungi used or that C. sublineolum suppresses the nonspecific induction of defense responses.

Hydroxycinnamic acid amide metabolism: physiology and biochemistry

2002 ◽  
Vol 80 (6) ◽  
pp. 577-589 ◽  
Author(s):  
Peter J Facchini ◽  
Jillian Hagel ◽  
Katherine G Zulak
Keyword(s):  
Cell Wall ◽  
Plant Cell ◽  
Plant Cell Wall ◽  
Floral Induction ◽  
Defense Responses ◽  
Hydroxycinnamic Acid ◽  
Flower Formation ◽  
Physiology And Biochemistry ◽  
Hydroxycinnamic Acid Amides ◽  
Coa Thioesters

Hydroxycinnamic acid amides (HCAAs) are a widely distributed group of plant secondary metabolites purported to function in several growth and developmental processes including floral induction, flower formation, sexual differentiation, tuberization, cell division, and cytomorphogenesis. Although most of these putative physiological roles for HCAAs remain controversial, the biosynthesis of amides and their subsequent polymerization in the plant cell wall are generally accepted as integral components of plant defense responses to pathogen challenge and wounding. Tyramine-derived HCAAs are commonly associated with the cell wall of tissues near pathogen-infected or wound healing regions. Moreover, feruloyltyramine and feruloyloctapamine are covalent cell wall constituents of both natural and wound periderms of potato (Solanum tuberosum) tubers, and are putative components of the aromatic domain of suberin. The deposition of HCAAs is thought to create a barrier against pathogens by reducing cell wall digestibility. HCAAs are formed by the condensation of hydroxycinnamoyl-CoA thioesters with phenylethylamines such as tyramine, or polyamines such as putrescine. The ultimate step in tyramine-derived HCAA biosynthesis is catalyzed by hydro xycinnamoyl-CoA:tyramine N-(hydroxycinnamoyl)transferase (THT; E.C. 2.3.1.110). The enzyme has been isolated and purified from a variety of plants, and the corresponding cDNAs cloned from potato, tobacco (Nicotiana tabacum), and pepper (Capsicum annuum). THT exhibits homology with mammalian spermidine-spermine acetyl transferases and putative N-acetyltransferases from microorganisms. In this review, recent advances in our understanding of the physiology and biochemistry of HCAA biosynthesis in plants are discussed.Key words: hydroxycinnamic acid amides, hydroxycinnamoyl-CoA thioesters, metabolic engineering, phenylethylamines, plant cell wall, polyamines, secondary metabolism, tyramine.

scholarly journals The Expression of Potato Expansin A3 (StEXPA3) and Extensin4 (StEXT4) Genes with Distribution of StEXPAs and HRGPs-Extensin Changes as an Effect of Cell Wall Rebuilding in Two Types of PVYNTN–Solanum tuberosum Interactions

Viruses ◽  
2020 ◽  
Vol 12 (1) ◽  
pp. 66 ◽  
Author(s):  
Katarzyna Otulak-Kozieł ◽  
Edmund Kozieł ◽  
Benham E. L. Lockhart ◽  
Józef J. Bujarski
Keyword(s):  
Cell Wall ◽  
Hypersensitive Response ◽  
Potato Plant ◽  
Plant Cell Wall ◽  
Dynamic Structure ◽  
Ultrastructural Localization ◽  
Wall Structure ◽  
Plant Interactions ◽  
Biotic And Abiotic Stress ◽  
Associated Proteins

The plant cell wall acts not only as a physical barrier, but also as a complex and dynamic structure that actively changes under different biotic and abiotic stress conditions. The question is, how are the different cell wall compounds modified during different interactions with exogenous stimuli such as pathogens? Plants exposed to viral pathogens respond to unfavorable conditions on multiple levels. One challenge that plants face under viral stress is the number of processes required for differential cell wall remodeling. The key players in these conditions are the cell wall genes and proteins, which can be regulated in specific ways during the interactions and have direct influences on the rebuilding of the cell wall structure. The cell wall modifications occurring in plants during viral infection remain poorly described. Therefore, this study focuses on cell wall dynamics as an effect of incompatible interactions between the potato virus Y (PVYNTN) and resistant potatoes (hypersensitive plant), as well as compatible (susceptible plant) interactions. Our analysis describes, for the first time, the expression of the potato expansin A3 (StEXPA3) and potato extensin 4 (StEXT4) genes in PVYNTN-susceptible and -resistant potato plant interactions. The results indicated a statistically significant induction of the StEXPA3 gene during a susceptible response. By contrast, we demonstrated the predominantly gradual activation of the StEXT4 gene during the hypersensitive response to PVYNTN inoculation. Moreover, the in situ distributions of expansins (StEXPAs), which are essential cell wall-associated proteins, and the hydroxyproline-rich glycoprotein (HRGP) extensin were investigated in two types of interactions. Furthermore, cell wall loosening was accompanied by an increase in StEXPA deposition in a PVYNTN-susceptible potato, whereas the HRGP content dynamically increased during the hypersensitive response, when the cell wall was reinforced. Ultrastructural localization and quantification revealed that the HRGP extensin was preferably located in the apoplast, but deposition in the symplast was also observed in resistant plants. Interestingly, during the hypersensitive response, StEXPA proteins were mainly located in the symplast area, in contrast to the susceptible potato where StEXPA proteins were mainly observed in the cell wall. These findings revealed that changes in the intracellular distribution and abundance of StEXPAs and HRGPs can be differentially regulated, depending on different types of PVYNTN–potato plant interactions, and confirmed the involvement of apoplast and symplast activation as a defense response mechanism.

scholarly journals A Meloidogyne graminicola Pectate Lyase Is Involved in Virulence and Activation of Host Defense Responses

2021 ◽  
Vol 12 ◽  
Author(s):  
Jiansong Chen ◽  
Zhiwen Li ◽  
Borong Lin ◽  
Jinling Liao ◽  
Kan Zhuo
Keyword(s):  
Cell Wall ◽  
Plant Cell ◽  
Plant Cell Wall ◽  
Signal Sequence ◽  
Expression System ◽  
Pectate Lyase ◽  
Defense Responses ◽  
Hydrolytic Activity ◽  
Parasitic Nematodes ◽  
Cell Wall Degrading Enzymes

Plant-parasitic nematodes secrete an array of cell-wall-degrading enzymes to overcome the physical barrier formed by the plant cell wall. Here, we describe a novel pectate lyase gene Mg-PEL1 from M. graminicola. Quantitative real-time PCR assay showed that the highest transcriptional expression level of Mg-PEL1 occurred in pre-parasitic second-stage juveniles, and it was still detected during the early parasitic stage. Using in situ hybridization, we showed that Mg-PEL1 was expressed exclusively within the subventral esophageal gland cells of M. graminicola. The yeast signal sequence trap system revealed that it possessed an N-terminal signal peptide with secretion function. Recombinant Mg-PEL1 exhibited hydrolytic activity toward polygalacturonic acid. Rice plants expressing RNA interference vectors targeting Mg-PEL1 showed an increased resistance to M. graminicola. In addition, using an Agrobacterium-mediated transient expression system and plant immune response assays, we demonstrated that the cell wall localization of Mg-PEL1 was required for the activation of plant defense responses, including programmed plant cell death, reactive oxygen species (ROS) accumulation and expression of defense-related genes. Taken together, our results indicated that Mg-PEL1 could enhance the pathogenicity of M. graminicola and induce plant immune responses during nematode invasion into plants or migration in plants. This provides a new insight into the function of pectate lyases in plants-nematodes interaction.

scholarly journals In silico and expression analyses of fasciclin-like arabinogalactan proteins reveal functional conservation during embryo and seed development

2019 ◽  
Vol 32 (4) ◽  
pp. 353-370 ◽  
Author(s):  
Mário Costa ◽  
Ana Marta Pereira ◽  
Sara Cristina Pinto ◽  
Jessy Silva ◽  
Luís Gustavo Pereira ◽  
...  
Keyword(s):  
Cell Wall ◽  
Seed Development ◽  
Plant Cell Wall ◽  
Functional Organization ◽  
Sequence Similarity ◽  
Expression Patterns ◽  
Arabinogalactan Proteins ◽  
Cork Oak ◽  
Functional Domain ◽  
Functional Conservation

Key message The fasciclin-like arabinogalactan proteins organization into four groups is conserved and may be related to specific roles in developmental processes across angiosperms. Abstract Fasciclin-like arabinogalactan proteins (FLAs) are a subclass of arabinogalactan proteins (AGPs), which contain fasciclin-like domains in addition to typical AGP domains. FLAs are present across all embryophytes, and despite their low overall sequence similarity, conserved regions that define the fasciclin functional domain (FAS) have been identified, suggesting that the cell adhesion property is also conserved. FLAs in Arabidopsis have been organized into four subgroups according to the number and distribution of functional domains. Recent studies associated FLAs with cell wall-related processes where domain organization seemed to be related to functional roles. In Arabidopsis, FLAs containing a single FAS domain were found to be important for the integrity and elasticity of the plant cell wall matrix, and FLAs with two FAS domains and two AGP domains were found to be involved in maintaining proper cell expansion under salt stress conditions. The main purpose of the present work was to elucidate the expression pattern of selected FLA genes during embryo and seed development using RT-qPCR. AtFLA8 and AtFLA10, two Arabidopsis genes that stood out in previous microarray studies of embryo development, were further examined using promoter-driven gene reporter analyses. We also studied the expression of cork oak FLA genes and found that their expression partially parallels the expression patterns of the putative AtFLA orthologs. We propose that the functional organization of FLAs is conserved and may be related to fundamental aspects of embryogenesis and seed development across angiosperms. Phylogenetic studies were performed, and we show that the same basic four-subgroup organization described for Arabidopsis FLA gene classification is valid for most Arabidopsis FLA orthologs of several plant species, namely poplar, corn and cork oak.

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