Differences in growth and physiological and metabolic responses among Canadian native and hybrid willows (Salix spp.) under salinity stress

2020 ◽  
Vol 40 (5) ◽  
pp. 652-666
Author(s):  
Xinyi Huang ◽  
Raju Y Soolanayakanahally ◽  
Robert D Guy ◽  
Arun S K Shunmugam ◽  
Shawn D Mansfield
Keyword(s):  
Anthropogenic Activities ◽  
Sulfur Metabolism ◽  
Economic Loss ◽  
Soil Salinization ◽  
Salt Transport ◽  
Salinity Treatment ◽  
Term Survival ◽  
Future Production ◽  
Amend Soil ◽  
Salix Spp

Abstract Globally, soil salinization is becoming increasingly prevalent, due to local hydrogeologic phenomena, climate change and anthropogenic activities. This has significantly curtailed current world food production and limits future production potential. In the prairie region of North America, sulfate salts, rather than sodium chloride, are often the predominant cause of soil degradation. In order to amend soil quality, revegetate salt-affected sites and recover economic loss associated with soil salinization, the establishment of short-rotation coppice plantations with willows (Salix spp.) has been suggested as a possible solution. To screen for the best candidates for such an application, 20 hybrid and 16 native willow genotypes were treated with three different salt conditions for 3 months. The treatments were designed to reflect the salt composition and concentrations on North American prairies. Under moderate salinity treatment (7 dS m−1), hybrid willows had better growth, as they established quickly while managing salt transport and mineral nutrition balance. However, native willows showed higher potential for long-term survival under severe salinity treatment (14 dS m−1), showing a lower sodium:potassium ratio in roots and better photosynthetic performance. Two native willow genotypes with high osmotic and salinity tolerance indices, specifically LAR-10 and MJW-9, are expected to show superior potential for remediating salt-affected sites. In addition, we observed significantly higher sulfate/sulfur concentrations in both leaf and root tissues in response to the severe salinity treatment, shedding light on the effect of sulfate salinity on sulfate uptake, and potentially sulfur metabolism in plants.

Salinity tolerance in Scolymus hispanicus L: preliminary findings from a soilless cultivation

2021 ◽  
Author(s):  
Dimitris Papadimitriou ◽  
Ioannis Daliakopoulos ◽  
Thrassyvoulos Manios ◽  
Dimitrios Savvas
Keyword(s):  
Chlorophyll Fluorescence ◽  
Nutrient Solution ◽  
Cropping Systems ◽  
Block Design ◽  
Research Work ◽  
Soil Salinization ◽  
Growth And Yield ◽  
Salinity Treatment ◽  
Fresh Weight ◽  
Soilless Cultivation

<p>Introducing edible salt-tolerant plant species to professional cultivation is a concept compatible with the need of improving the resilience of food systems to shocks and stresses, which is  required to tackle eminent global challenges, such as water scarcity and climate change (Cuevas et al., 2019). Hydroponic systems can contribute to substantial savings of water, nutrients, and space, while increasing yield and produce quality (Savvas and Gruda, 2018). In the current study, we examined the feasibility of cultivating the wild edible green <em>Scolymus hispanicus L</em>. under moderate levels of salinity in a soilless cultivation system. The experiment was installed in October 2019, in an unheated saddle roof double-span greenhouse, as a completely randomized block design with 4 treatments and 4 blocks per treatment (Papadimitriou et al., 2020). Treatments were formed by supplying a standard nutrient solution (NS) with four NaCl concentrations (0.5, 5.0, 10.0, and 15.0 mM), resulting in electrical conductivities of 2.2, 2.8, 3.2, and 3.8 dS m<sup>-1</sup>, respectively. Measurements of chlorophyll fluorescence (Fv/Fm) and relative chlorophyll levels (SPAD), which were performed to assess the photosynthetic capacity of leaves, did not indicate any significant differences between the non-salinized control (0.5 mM NaCl) and the salinity treatments (5.0, 10.0, and 15.0 mM NaCl), until 60 days after seedling transplanting (DAT). However, by 90 DAT, salinity levels of 10.0 and 15.0 mM significantly reduced leaf chlorophyll levels, as indicated by the SPAD indices, compared to 5.0 and 0.5 mM NaCl in the supplied NS. Moreover, by 90 DAT, the chlorophyll fluorescence (Fv/Fm) was significantly reduced at the salinity level of 15.0 mM compared to 0.5 and 5.0 mM. Nevertheless, no salinity treatment had a significant impact on leaf fresh weight, root fresh weight, rosette diameter, number of leaves and post-harvest storability in plants harvested 90 and 120 DAT, compared to the control. Based on these results, <em>S. hispanicus L</em>. exhibits a considerable resilience to moderate salinity and can be considered a promising candidate plant for introduction in hydroponic cropping systems.</p><p><strong>Acknowledgements</strong></p><p>The research work was supported by the Hellenic Foundation for Research and Innovation (HFRI) under the HFRI PhD Fellowship grant (Fellowship Number: 240).</p><p><strong>References</strong></p><p>Cuevas, J., Daliakopoulos, I.N., del Moral, F., Hueso, J.J., Tsanis, I.K., 2019. A Review of Soil-Improving Cropping Systems for Soil Salinization. Agronomy 9, 295. https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy9060295</p><p>Papadimitriou, D., Kontaxakis, E., Daliakopoulos, I., Manios, T., Savvas, D., 2020. Effect of N:K Ratio and Electrical Conductivity of Nutrient Solution on Growth and Yield of Hydroponically Grown Golden Thistle (Scolymus hispanicus L.). Proceedings 30, 87.https://doi.org/10.3390/proceedings2019030087</p><p>Savvas, D., Gruda, N., 2018. Application of soilless culture technologies in the modern greenhouse industry - A review. Europ. J. Hort. Sci. 83, 280-293.</p>

scholarly journals Soil Salinity and Sodicity in Drylands: A Review of Causes, Effects, Monitoring, and Restoration Measures

2021 ◽  
Vol 9 ◽  
Author(s):  
Ilan Stavi ◽  
Niels Thevs ◽  
Simone Priori
Keyword(s):  
Soil Salinity ◽  
Agricultural Land ◽  
Anthropogenic Activities ◽  
Soil Salinization ◽  
Management Tool ◽  
Irrigated Agriculture ◽  
Saline Soils ◽  
Chemical Restoration ◽  
Irrigation Technologies ◽  
Over Time

Soil salinization and sodification are common processes that particularly characterize drylands. These processes can be attributed either to natural conditions or anthropogenic activities. While natural causes include factors such as climate, lithology, topography, and pedology, human causes are mostly related to agricultural land-use, and specifically, to irrigated agriculture. The objective of this study was to thoroughly review this topic, while highlighting the major challenges and related opportunities. Over time, the extent of saline, sodic, and saline-sodic croplands has increased, resulting in accelerated land degradation and desertification, decreased agricultural productivity, and consequently jeopardizing environmental and food security. Mapping and monitoring saline soils is an important management tool, aimed at determining the extent and severity of salinization processes. Recent developments in advanced remote sensing methods have improved the efficacy of mapping and monitoring saline soils. Knowledge on prevention, mitigation, and recovery of soil salinity and sodicity has substantially grown over time. This knowledge includes advanced measures for salt flushing and leaching, water-saving irrigation technologies, precision fertilizer systems, chemical restoration, organic and microbial remediation, and phytoremediation of affected lands. Of a particular interest is the development of forestry-related means, with afforestation, reforestation, agroforestry, and silvopasture practices for the recovery of salt-affected soils. The forecasted expansion of drylands and aggravated drying of existing drylands due to climatic change emphasize the importance of this topic.

scholarly journals Sex ratio and morphological characteristics of rufous gnateaters, Conopophaga lineata (Aves, Passeriformes) in Atlantic forest fragments

2009 ◽  
Vol 99 (1) ◽  
pp. 115-119 ◽  
Author(s):  
Gisele P. M. Dantas ◽  
Fabrício R. Santos ◽  
Miguel Ângelo Marini
Keyword(s):  
Sex Ratio ◽  
Morphological Changes ◽  
Anthropogenic Activities ◽  
Natural Populations ◽  
Morphological Characteristics ◽  
Atlantic Rain Forest ◽  
Forest Fragments ◽  
Natural Habitats ◽  
Term Survival

Unequal sex ratios lead to the loss of genetic variability, decreasing the viability of populations in the long term. Anthropogenic activities often disturb the natural habitats and can cause alterations in sex ratio and morphological characteristics of several species. Forest fragmentation is a major conservation concern, so that understanding its effects in natural populations is essential. In this study, we evaluated the sex ratio and the morphological characteristics of Rufous Gnateaters (Conopophaga lineata (Wied, 1831)) in small and large forest fragments in Minas Gerais, Brazil. Birds (n = 89) were sexed by plumage characteristics and molecular markers. The molecular analysis showed that plumage is not a totally reliable method for sexing Rufous Gnateaters. We observed that sex ratio did not differ between large and small forest fragments, but birds in small fragments had larger wings and tarsus. Wing and tarsus changes may affect the movement ability of individuals within and among forest fragments. In conclusion, Rufous Gnateaters have been able to survive in both small and large Atlantic rain forest fragments without altering their sex ratio, but morphological changes can be prejudicial to their long term survival.

Geoinformation in support of sustainable soils’ management to strengthen resilience under the pressure of climate change

2021 ◽  
Author(s):  
Christina Lekka ◽  
George P. Petropoulos ◽  
Dimitrios Triantakonstantis ◽  
Spyros Detsikas ◽  
Christos Chalkias
Keyword(s):  
Climate Change ◽  
Organic Carbon ◽  
Soil Organic Carbon ◽  
Soil Properties ◽  
Satellite Imagery ◽  
Anthropogenic Activities ◽  
Soil Salinization ◽  
Soil Parameters ◽  
Alkaline Soils ◽  
The Impact

<p><strong>Abstract</strong></p><p>The National Map of Saline – Alkaline Soils of Greece was recently developed within the initiative of the European Soil Partnership (ESP) of FAO. The technique combines between other MODIS satellite imagery, spatial interpolation methods and ground surveying to derive at 1 km spatial resolution maps of soil’s salinity (SS) and soil organic carbon (SOC).</p><p>The present study investigates for the first time the development of higher resolution maps of these soil properties adopting the aforementioned methodology. Furthermore, this study attempted to estimate the Carbon sequestration (SOC) using Remote Sensing and geostatistic methods of spatial analysis, a concern that is eminent today due to its effect on climate change mitigation.</p><p>As a case study the island of Mytilene in Greece is used, for which detailed information on soil properties as well as climatic, geomorphological, geological and soil data was available from previous studies. An MCDA (Multiple Criteria Decision Analysis) method was applied in a GIS environment using Landsat satellite imagery for the composition of a Saline - Alkaline map. Between the key soil parameters estimated spatially included the Electrical Conductivity (EC), Exchangeable Sodium Percentage (ESP) and pH. Geospatial data analysis methods were implemented to visualize all the derived parameters related for the study area and to analyze the final products in the spatial domain.</p><p>Finding suggests that climate change and soil directly affect one another. The impact of environmental and climate change in addition to unsustainable agricultural practices seems to be linked to salinity increase, soil erosion and loss of organic matter.  In addition, when land degradation as well as erosion and loss of vegetation occur, SOC emissions increase. Under these conditions, soil cannot absorb enough amounts of CO2, especially when soil salinization and sodicity exists; inputs are further limited due to declines in vegetation health. The role of geoinformation technologies in support of sustainable agricultural production under the pressure of both climate change and anthropogenic activities is also discussed within the present study framework.  </p><p><strong>KEYWORDS:</strong> geoinformation, soil, pH, salinity, soil organic carbon, geostatistics, earth observation, GIS, Greece</p>

Diffusive limitation to photosynthesis and plant-microbe N competition dominate the urban lawn response to secondary salinization

2020 ◽  
Author(s):  
Dario Liberati ◽  
Ramilla Brykova ◽  
Maria Cristina Moscatelli ◽  
Stefano Moscatello ◽  
Emanuele Pallozzi ◽  
...  
Keyword(s):  
Soil Salinization ◽  
Leaf Mass Per Area ◽  
Salinity Treatment ◽  
Mesophyll Conductance ◽  
N Content ◽  
Secondary Salinization ◽  
Photosynthetic Rates ◽  
Leaf N Content ◽  
The Impact ◽  
Leaf N

<p>Release of de-icing agents is the main cause of increasing soil salinization in urban and rural areas.  Grasses are the dominant vegetation in urban lawns and are exposed to different rates of soil salinization depending on the distance to the paved salt-affected surfaces. The capacity of these ecosystems to maintain C sequestration and nutrient cycling functioning depends on the sensitivity to salinization of the main players: primary producers and their interaction with microbial community.</p><p>In this mesocosm study we aimed to evaluating the impact of soil secondary salinization rates on the functioning of <em>Lolium perenne</em>. Salinization treatments were applied for two months in spring, irrigating the mesocosms with the commonly used de-icing agent NaCl at two concentration, 30 mM (low salinity treatment) and 90 mM (moderate salinity treatment). The leaf physiological  responses of Lolium were assessed monitoring photosynthetic rates (A), stomatal conductance (g<sub>s</sub>)  mesophyll conductance (g<sub>m</sub>), carboxylation capacity (V<sub>cmax</sub>). Quantitative limitation analysis (QLA) was applied to calculate the relative contribution of diffusive and biochemical limitation to photosynthesis under salinization. Productivity was estimated by regular mowing of plants to 4cm height. Finally, plants were harvested and analyzed on leaf mass per area (LMA), leaf N content and <sup>15</sup>N isotope composition. Rhizosphere soil was sampled and analyzed on the activity of enzymes involved in the cycling of C, N, S and P. </p><p>Salinity increased LMA and leaf N, reducing  Lolium aboveground productivity. Photosynthetic rates were almost halved under both salinity treatments. QLA shows that photosynthesis was mainly limited by g<sub>m</sub>, limitation accounting for 68% and 54% of the total limitation in 30mM and 90mM, respectively. g<sub>s</sub> reduction significantly limited photosynthesis only in 90 mM (32% of total limitation), while biochemical limitations (due to a reduction in V<sub>cmax</sub>) remained below 20% of the total limitation in both treatments.</p><p>Mesophyll conductance to CO<sub>2 </sub>depends on leaf anatomical and biochemical traits and is usually negatively related to LMA. The increased LMA observed under salinity treatments suggests that changes in the leaf structure (like increased cell wall thickness) could be responsible for most of the A (and consequently productivity) reduction.  On the other hand, the increased leaf N content is in agreement with the lack of significant reduction in V<sub>cmax</sub>. Accumulation of N compounds in leaves in response to salinization was accompanied by a decline in soil extracellular enzymes involved in N and other cycles. Over-competing of the microbial pool in access to nutrients by vegetation could be suggested in conditions of salinization. Because the belowground biomass was not affected, decline in C losses with salinization could be hypothesize which should balance the shortage in C inputs.     </p><p>In conclusion, salinization mainly limited A through g<sub>m</sub> limitation, probably associated  to the increased LMA. At the same time, altering the capacity of the microbial pool to compete for N,  it increased leaf N, possibly reducing  the impact of biochemical limitation on A and avoiding a further A and productivity decline.</p><p>Experiment was financially supported by the Russian Science Foundation, project No.17-77-20046.</p>

scholarly journals Simulation of Water and Salt Transport in Soil under Pipe Drainage and Drip Irrigation Conditions in Xinjiang

Water ◽  
2019 ◽  
Vol 11 (12) ◽  
pp. 2456 ◽  
Author(s):  
Kaiming Li ◽  
Hongguang Liu ◽  
Xinlin He ◽  
Xinxin Li
Keyword(s):  
Drip Irrigation ◽  
Salt Content ◽  
Soil Layer ◽  
Growth Period ◽  
Soil Salinization ◽  
Salt Transport ◽  
Model Parameters ◽  
Alkali Soil ◽  
Total Salt Content ◽  
Mulching Films

With the popularization and development of drip irrigation under film, the problem of secondary soil salinization in Xinjiang is becoming more and more serious. To explore water and salt transport in drip irrigation under mulch and drainpipe drainage, drainage tests of drainage ditches in saline-alkali soil in the Xinjiang 112 group were used to monitor soil salinity changes by controlling field irrigation. Then, a HYDRUS (PC-Progress, Prague, Czech Republic) numerical model was used to simulate and analyze the changes in salinity during cotton growth and the autumn salt return stage in saline-alkali soil under drainage conditions. The agreement between the simulated and measured values was high, and the model parameters were reliable. During the growth period of cotton, the salinity continued to decrease, and the salt began to return after the harvest. Compared with before planting, in the 0–80 cm soil layer, the average desalinization rate reached 43.52% under the mulching films, and the average desalinization rate reached 13.83% under and between the mulching films. After the cotton was harvested, salt returned to the upper layer of soil. However, it still showed a decrease compared with the level before sowing. The average salt content of 0–80 cm soil decreased by 5.14%, and the average salt content of 0–200 cm decreased by 2.60%. This shows that the total salt content in soil will continue to decrease after long-term use of drip irrigation and underground pipe drainage.

scholarly journals Adaptive Mechanisms of Halophytes and Their Potential in Improving Salinity Tolerance in Plants

2021 ◽  
Vol 22 (19) ◽  
pp. 10733
Author(s):  
Md. Mezanur Rahman ◽  
Mohammad Golam Mostofa ◽  
Sanjida Sultana Keya ◽  
Md. Nurealam Siddiqui ◽  
Md. Mesbah Uddin Ansary ◽  
...  
Keyword(s):  
Salt Tolerance ◽  
Sustainable Agriculture ◽  
Contaminated Soils ◽  
Anthropogenic Activities ◽  
Soil Salinization ◽  
Saline Soils ◽  
Negative Effects ◽  
Defense Proteins ◽  
Biochemical Adaptation ◽  
Physiological And Biochemical

Soil salinization, which is aggravated by climate change and inappropriate anthropogenic activities, has emerged as a serious environmental problem, threatening sustainable agriculture and future food security. Although there has been considerable progress in developing crop varieties by introducing salt tolerance-associated traits, most crop cultivars grown in saline soils still exhibit a decline in yield, necessitating the search for alternatives. Halophytes, with their intrinsic salt tolerance characteristics, are known to have great potential in rehabilitating salt-contaminated soils to support plant growth in saline soils by employing various strategies, including phytoremediation. In addition, the recent identification and characterization of salt tolerance-related genes encoding signaling components from halophytes, which are naturally grown under high salinity, have paved the way for the development of transgenic crops with improved salt tolerance. In this review, we aim to provide a comprehensive update on salinity-induced negative effects on soils and plants, including alterations of physicochemical properties in soils, and changes in physiological and biochemical processes and ion disparities in plants. We also review the physiological and biochemical adaptation strategies that help halophytes grow and survive in salinity-affected areas. Furthermore, we illustrate the halophyte-mediated phytoremediation process in salinity-affected areas, as well as their potential impacts on soil properties. Importantly, based on the recent findings on salt tolerance mechanisms in halophytes, we also comprehensively discuss the potential of improving salt tolerance in crop plants by introducing candidate genes related to antiporters, ion transporters, antioxidants, and defense proteins from halophytes for conserving sustainable agriculture in salinity-prone areas.

scholarly journals Soil Salinity, a Serious Environmental Issue and Plant Responses: A Metabolomics Perspective

Metabolites ◽  
2021 ◽  
Vol 11 (11) ◽  
pp. 724
Author(s):  
Kekeletso H. Chele ◽  
Morena M. Tinte ◽  
Lizelle A. Piater ◽  
Ian A. Dubery ◽  
Fidele Tugizimana
Keyword(s):  
Regulatory Networks ◽  
Molecular Mechanisms ◽  
Ad Hoc ◽  
Anthropogenic Activities ◽  
Arable Land ◽  
Soil Salinization ◽  
Environmental Issue ◽  
Plant Responses ◽  
Global Food Security ◽  
Negative Impacts

The effects of global warming have increasingly led to devastating environmental stresses, such as heat, salinity, and drought. Soil salinization is a serious environmental issue and results in detrimental abiotic stress, affecting 7% of land area and 33% of irrigated lands worldwide. The proportion of arable land facing salinity is expected to rise due to increasing climate change fuelled by anthropogenic activities, exacerbating the threat to global food security for the exponentially growing populace. As sessile organisms, plants have evolutionarily developed mechanisms that allow ad hoc responses to salinity stress. The orchestrated mechanisms include signalling cascades involving phytohormones, kinases, reactive oxygen species (ROS), and calcium regulatory networks. As a pillar in a systems biology approach, metabolomics allows for comprehensive interrogation of the biochemistry and a deconvolution of molecular mechanisms involved in plant responses to salinity. Thus, this review highlights soil salinization as a serious environmental issue and points to the negative impacts of salinity on plants. Furthermore, the review summarises mechanisms regulating salinity tolerance on molecular, cellular, and biochemical levels with a focus on metabolomics perspectives. This critical synthesis of current literature is an opportunity to revisit the current models regarding plant responses to salinity, with an invitation to further fundamental research for novel and actionable insights.

scholarly journals Physiological stress responses of tigers due to anthropogenic disturbance especially tourism in two central Indian tiger reserves

2019 ◽  
Vol 7 (1) ◽  
Author(s):  
Abhinav Tyagi ◽  
Vinod Kumar ◽  
Sagar Kittur ◽  
Mahender Reddy ◽  
Sergey Naidenko ◽  
...  
Keyword(s):  
Stress Responses ◽  
Anthropogenic Disturbance ◽  
Physiological Stress ◽  
Anthropogenic Activities ◽  
Anthropogenic Disturbances ◽  
Isolated Populations ◽  
Species Identity ◽  
Term Survival ◽  
Tiger Reserve ◽  
Significant Difference

Abstract Tigers continue to face unprecedented threats to their existence due to poaching, habitat loss, habitat fragmentation and anthropogenic disturbances. The present study examines the physiological stress response of tigers due to anthropogenic activities including wildlife tourism in Bandhavgarh Tiger Reserve and Kanha Tiger Reserve using faecal glucocorticoid metabolite (fGCM) measurement. We collected a total of 341 faecal samples from both reserves during tourism and non-tourism periods. Data on various anthropogenic disturbances including tourism activities like number of vehicles and visitors were also collected. We ascertained the species identity and sex of all the samples collected using genetic markers. fGCMs were extracted using a previously reported procedure, and fGCM concentrations were subsequently determined using an established enzyme immunoassay. There was no significant difference in overall mean fGCM concentrations between the two tiger reserves, but within each reserve, concentrations were significantly higher in tigers during the tourism period as compared to the non-tourism period. We also found that the number of tourist vehicles and disturbance level significantly correlated with fGCM concentrations. This study further supports the assumption that unbridled tourism associated with high anthropogenic disturbance can be related to perceived stress and consequently may have an impact on the reproductive fitness of tigers and long-term survival of isolated populations.

scholarly journals COVID-19 and Pneumolysis Simulating Extreme High-altitude Exposure with Altered Oxygen Transport Physiology; Multiple Diseases, and Scarce Need of Ventilators: Andean Condor's-eye-view

2020 ◽  
Vol 15 ◽  
Author(s):  
Gustavo R. Zubieta-Calleja ◽  
Natalia Zubieta-DeUrioste ◽  
Thuppil Venkatesh ◽  
Kusal K. Das ◽  
Jorge Soliz
Keyword(s):  
High Altitude ◽  
Oxygen Transport ◽  
Clinical Signs ◽  
Signs And Symptoms ◽  
Economic Loss ◽  
Open Circuit ◽  
Term Survival ◽  
Individual Outcomes ◽  
Capillary Membrane ◽  
Clinical Signs And Symptoms

Background: Critical hypoxia in this COVID-19 pandemic results in high mortality and economic loss worldwide. Initially, this disease’ pathophysiology was poorly understood and interpreted as a SARS (Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome) pneumonia. The severe atypical lung CAT scan images alerted all countries, including the poorest, to purchase lacking sophisticated ventilators. However, 88% of the patients on ventilators lost their lives. It was suggested that COVID-19 could be similar to a High-Altitude Pulmonary Edema (HAPE). New observations and pathological findings are gradually clarifying the disease. Methods: As high-altitude medicine and hypoxia physiology specialists from the highlands, we perform a perspective analysis of hypoxic diseases treated at high altitude and compare them to Covid-19. Oxygen transport physiology, SARSCov-2 characteristics, and its transmission, lung imaging in COVID-19, and HAPE, as well as the causes of clinical signs and symptoms, are discussed. Results: High-altitude oxygen transport physiology has been systematically ignored. COVID-19 signs and symptoms indicate a progressive and irreversible failure in the oxygen transport system, secondary to pneumolysis produced by SARS-Cov-2’s alveolar-capillary membrane “attack”. HAPE’s pulmonary compromise is treatable and reversible. COVID-19 is associated with several diseases, with different individual outcomes, in different countries, and at different altitudes. Conclusions: High-altitude illnesses pathophysiology can help explain COVID-19 pathophysiology, severity, and management. Early diagnosis and use of EPO, acetylsalicylic-acid, and other anti-inflammatories, oxygen therapy, antitussives, antibiotics, and the use of Earth open-circuit-astronaut-resembling suits to return to daily activities, should all be considered. Ventilator use can be counterproductive. Immunity development is the only feasible long-term survival tool.

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