scholarly journals REPRODUCTION OF INFLUENZA VIRUSES

1955 ◽  
Vol 102 (4) ◽  
pp. 441-473 ◽  
Author(s):  
Frank L. Horsfall
Keyword(s):  
Half Life ◽  
Influenza A ◽  
Doubling Time ◽  
Allantoic Fluid ◽  
Influenza Viruses ◽  
Reproductive Process ◽  
Cell Ratio ◽  
A Value ◽  
B Virus ◽  
Maximal Yield

Influenza A and B virus reproduction in the allantoic membrane of the intact chicken embryo was studied quantitatively with particle enumeration procedures. Virus particles were enumerated on the basis of two independent properties; capacity to infect and to cause hemagglutination. The infective property of influenza B virus (Lee) was even more unstable than that of influenza A virus (PR8). Inactivation occurred at a constant logarithmic rate which was independent of the concentration of particles and corresponded with first order reaction kinetics. In allantoic fluid at 35°C. either in vitro or in vivo, Lee virus had a half-life for infectivity of only 85 minutes. In contrast, the hemagglutinating property, like that of PR8, was relatively stable and was not appreciably affected by 12 hours at 35°C. On the basis that the number of non-infective particles is equal to the number of hemagglutinating particles minus the number of infective particles and that the number of cells lining the allnatoic membrane is 1.8 x 107, the effects of various particle-cell ratios on the reproductive process were analyzed. Adsorption of infective and non-infective Lee particles occurred at the same logarithmic rate, i.e. about 50 per cent in 72 minutes, and the rate was nearly independent of the particle-cell ratio up to a value of 55. The adsorption capacity of an allantoic cell was at least 44 Lee or 89 PR8 particles. The interval before new particles appeared in the allantoic fluid increased as the particle-cell ratio was decreased with both Lee and PR8. At ratios of 0.2 or less, the appearance time for infective particles was nearly identical to that for hemagglutinating particles with both viruses. At ratios of about 1.0, the "latent period" in the allantoic membrane per se was computed to be 150 to 160 minutes for both Lee and PR8. The number of particles, both infective and hemagglutinating, increased at a constant logarithmic rate for 6 hours or more after the adsorptive period. With Lee virus, at a particle-cell ratio of 5 or less, the doubling time was constant and had a value of 43 minutes. The dynamics of the logarithmic increase period suggest that reproduction corresponds to an autocatalytic reaction in which the rate is proportional to the amount of material produced. When the particle-cell ratio was increased to 10 or more, either with infective or non-infective (inactivated at 35°C. or 22°C.) particles, the doubling time increased to 65 minutes. Comparable effects from high ratios were found with PR8. Non-infective particles accumulated at a rapid rate after the interval of constant logarithmic increase regardless of the particle-cell ratio. This accumulation was even more striking with Lee than with PR8 as was expected because of the shorter half-life of the infective property. With both viruses at particle-cell ratios of 4 or more, a large proportion of the particles were non-infective within a few hours after new particles appeared. At particle-cell ratios of 0.2 or less, the maximal yield was relatively constant, i.e., about 900 to 1400 hemagglutinating particles per cell with Lee and 500 to 900 with PR8. However, even with very low ratios, i.e. 0.001 or less, it was not possible to obtain more than about 160 infective particles per cell with either virus regardless of the interval. As was expected, the lower the ratio, the longer was the interval before maximal yields were produced. At ratios of about 10, the maximal yield was reduced by 50 per cent or more with both viruses. Comparable reductions in yield were obtained whether the high particle-cell ratio was due to infective or non-infective (inactivated at 35°C. or 22°C.) particles. These findings indicate that there is a critical particle-cell ratio above which alterations appear in the dynamics of reproduction of influenza viruses. This ratio has a value of approximately 3. The observed alterations in the reproductive process are discussed in relation to the hypothesis that adsorption of 3 or more infective or non-infective particles per cell induces cell damage.

scholarly journals ON THE REPRODUCTION OF INFLUENZA VIRUS

1954 ◽  
Vol 100 (2) ◽  
pp. 135-161 ◽  
Author(s):  
Frank L. Horsfall
Keyword(s):  
Half Life ◽  
Influenza A ◽  
Allantoic Fluid ◽  
Reproductive Process ◽  
Rate Of Increase ◽  
The Difference ◽  
Almost All ◽  
Number Of Particles

Procedures which make possible the enumeration of both infective and hemagglutinating influenza A virus particles have been developed and used in a quantitative investigation on the reproduction of the agent. Infective particles were found to be highly unstable and their half-life was only 147 minutes in allantoic fluid at 35°C. both in vitro and in vivo. The instability of infective particles provides an explanation for the rapid accumulation of non-infective particles which retained the hemagglutinating property. The number of non-infective (N) particles was determined from the difference between the number of hemagglutinating (H) particles and the number of infective (I) particles as indicated by the relation: [N] = [H]– [1]. When the half-life of infective particles was taken into account, both infective and hemagglutinating particles were found to disappear from the allantoic fluid; i.e., were adsorbed by the allantoic membrane, at the same logarithmic rate after inoculation. Inoculation of any number of particles up to 3 x 107 was followed by a constant and progressive decrease in the proportion of unadsorbed particles from 0 to 4 hours. Approximately 20 per cent of particles were unadsorbed at 2 hours and about 5 per cent at 4 hours. Inoculation of 3 x 108 or more particles led to a larger proportion of unadsorbed particles at 4 hours. The maximum number of particles adsorbed was computed to be about 1.6 x 109. The concentration of both infective and hemagglutinating particles increased rapidly in the allantoic fluid after 4 hours when any number of infective particles up to 3 x 107 was inoculated. With such inocula, the rate of increase during the logarithmic period was constant and the time to double the concentration of infective or hemagglutinating particles was 46 minutes. With larger inocula, i.e. 3 x 108 particles, the concentrations of infective and hemagglutinating particles did not increase until after 8 hours and the rate of increase was much slower. The time to double the concentration of either then became 92 minutes. The number of infective particles was approximately equal to the number of hemagglutinating particles during the logarithmic increase period when any number of infective particles up to 3 x 106 was inoculated and no more than 106 non-infective particles were included in the inoculum. This finding was taken to indicate that all or almost all particles produced and released under these conditions were infective. That such particles became inactivated rapidly and led to the accumulation of an increasing number of non-infective particles after the logarithmic period can be explained by the short half-life of infective particles. The number of infective particles was no larger than one-tenth the number of hemagglutinating particles during the logarithmic increase period after 3 x 107 or more infective particles had been inoculated or when smaller inocula were used which also contained 3 x 107 or more non-infective particles. Non-infective particles prepared in vitro at 35° or 22°C. were as effective as those which accumulated in vivo in diminishing the proportion of infective particles in the yield. The extent of the reduction in the proportion of infective particles was directly related to the number of non-infective particles included in the inoculum. The yield of hemagglutinating particles was diminished when the inoculum contained 3 x 107 or more non-infective particles. The rate of increase was reduced so that the time to double the concentration became 92 minutes when the inoculum contained 3 x 108 non-infective particles. It appears from these findings that the single condition which will lead to the emergence of non-infective particles during the logarithmic period is a high initial particle-cell ratio. Because non-infective particles are equally as effective as infective particles in producing this result, it seems probable that the appearance of non-infective but hemagglutinating particles is not a necessary accompaniment of the reproductive process.

scholarly journals Clinical Investigations. Comparison of Directigen Flu A+B with Real Time PCR in the Diagnosis of Influenza / Сравнение Иммунохроматографического Метода (Directigen Flu A+B) И Теста RT-PCR При Инфекциях Гриппа

Folia Medica ◽  
2015 ◽  
Vol 57 (2) ◽  
pp. 104-110 ◽  
Author(s):  
Golubinka Bosevska ◽  
Nikola Panovski ◽  
Elizabeta Janceska ◽  
Vladimir Mikik ◽  
Irena Kondova Topuzovska ◽  
...  
Keyword(s):  
Real Time ◽  
Influenza A Virus ◽  
Real Time Pcr ◽  
Influenza A ◽  
Age Groups ◽  
Influenza Viruses ◽  
Influenza B Virus ◽  
Influenza B ◽  
B Virus ◽  
Nose And Throat

AbstractEarly diagnosis and treatment of patients with influenza is the reason why physicians need rapid high-sensitivity influenza diagnostic tests that require no complex lab equipment and can be performed and interpreted within 15 min. The Aim of this study was to compare the rapid Directigen Flu A+B test with real time PCR for detection of influenza viruses in the Republic of Macedonia. MATERIALS AND METHODS: One-hundred-eight respiratory samples (combined nose and throat swabs) were routinely collected for detection of influenza virus during influenza seasons. Forty-one patients were pediatric cases and 59 were adult. Their mean age was 23 years. The patients were allocated into 6 age groups: 0 - 4 yrs, 5 - 9 yrs, 10 - 14 yrs, 15 - 19 yrs, 20-64 yrs and > 65 yrs. Each sample was tested with Directigen Flu A+B and CDC real time PCR kit for detection and typisation/subtypisation of influenza according to the lab diagnostic protocol. RESULTS: Directigen Flu A+B identified influenza A virus in 20 (18.5%) samples and influenza B virus in two 2 (1.9%) samples. The high specificity (100%) and PPV of Directigen Flu A+B we found in our study shows that the positive results do not need to be confirmed. The overall sensitivity of Directigen Flu A+B is 35.1% for influenza A virus and 33.0% for influenza B virus. The sensitivity for influenza A is higher among children hospitalized (45.0%) and outpatients (40.0%) versus adults. CONCLUSION: Directigen Flu A+B has relatively low sensitivity for detection of influenza viruses in combined nose and throat swabs. Negative results must be confirmed.

scholarly journals Haemagglutination-inhibition antibodies against influenza A and influenza B in maternal and neonatal sera

1978 ◽  
Vol 80 (1) ◽  
pp. 13-19 ◽  
Author(s):  
N. Masurel ◽  
J. I. de Bruijne ◽  
H. A. Beuningh ◽  
H. J. A. Schouten
Keyword(s):  
Influenza Virus ◽  
Maternal Age ◽  
Influenza A ◽  
Haemagglutination Inhibition ◽  
Influenza Viruses ◽  
Influenza B Virus ◽  
Influenza B ◽  
B Virus ◽  
Duration Of Pregnancy ◽  
Pregnancy And Birth

SUMMARYHaemagglutination inhibition (HI) antibodies against the influenza viruses A/Hong Kong/8/68 (H3N2) and B/Nederland/77/66 were determined in 420 paired sera from mothers and newborns (umbilical cord sera), sampled in 1970–1.A higher concentration of antibodies against influenza A virus was found more frequently in neonatal than in maternal sera. By contrast, low titres against influenza B virus were more frequently observed in neonatal than in maternal sera. Maternal age, duration of pregnancy, and birth-weight did not affect the results of the tests.It is suggested that the titre of the newborn against an epidemic influenza virus can be predicted from that of the mother. Furthermore, the maternal titre may be an indication of the susceptibility of the newborn infant to influenza infections.

scholarly journals Influenza A and B viruses in the population of Vojvodina, Serbia

2014 ◽  
Vol 66 (1) ◽  
pp. 43-50 ◽  
Author(s):  
J. Radovanov ◽  
V. Milosevic ◽  
I. Hrnjakovic ◽  
V. Petrovic ◽  
M. Ristic ◽  
...  
Keyword(s):  
Influenza A ◽  
Respiratory Infections ◽  
Influenza Viruses ◽  
Influenza B Virus ◽  
Nasopharyngeal Swab ◽  
Influenza B ◽  
Influenza A Viruses ◽  
B Virus ◽  
Life Threatening ◽  
Seasonal Epidemic

At present, two influenza A viruses, H1N1pdm09 and H3N2, along with influenza B virus co-circulate in the human population, causing endemic and seasonal epidemic acute febrile respiratory infections, sometimes with life-threatening complications. Detection of influenza viruses in nasopharyngeal swab samples was done by real-time RT-PCR. There were 60.2% (53/88) positive samples in 2010/11, 63.4% (52/82) in 2011/12, and 49.9% (184/369) in 2012/13. Among the positive patients, influenza A viruses were predominant during the first two seasons, while influenza B type was more active during 2012/13. Subtyping of influenza A positive samples revealed the presence of A (H1N1)pdm09 in 2010/11, A (H3N2) in 2011/12, while in 2012/13, both subtypes were detected. The highest seroprevalence against influenza A was in the age-group 30-64, and against influenza B in adults aged 30-64 and >65.

scholarly journals Detection of severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 and influenza viruses based on CRISPR-Cas12a

2020 ◽  
pp. 153537022096379
Author(s):  
Oraphan Mayuramart ◽  
Pattaraporn Nimsamer ◽  
Somruthai Rattanaburi ◽  
Naphat Chantaravisoot ◽  
Kritsada Khongnomnan ◽  
...  
Keyword(s):  
Influenza Virus ◽  
Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome ◽  
Influenza A ◽  
Limit Of Detection ◽  
Cross Reactivity ◽  
Influenza Viruses ◽  
Influenza B Virus ◽  
Influenza B ◽  
Influenza Virus A ◽  
B Virus

Due to the common symptoms of COVID-19, patients are similar to influenza-like illness. Therefore, the detection method would be crucial to discriminate between SARS-CoV-2 and influenza virus-infected patients. In this study, CRISPR-Cas12a-based detection was applied for detection of severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2), influenza A virus, and influenza B virus which would be a practical and attractive application for screening of patients with COVID-19 and influenza in areas with limited resources. The limit of detection for SARS-CoV-2, influenza A, and influenza B detection was 10, 103, and 103 copies/reaction, respectively. Moreover, the assays yielded no cross-reactivity against other respiratory viruses. The results revealed that the detection of influenza virus and SARS-CoV-2 by using RT-RPA and CRISPR-Cas12a technology reaches 96.23% sensitivity and 100% specificity for SARS-CoV-2 detection. The sensitivity for influenza virus A and B detections was 85.07% and 94.87%, respectively. In addition, the specificity for influenza virus A and B detections was approximately 96%. In conclusion, the RT-RPA with CRISPR-Cas12a assay was an effective method for the screening of influenza viruses and SARS-CoV-2 which could be applied to detect other infectious diseases in the future.

scholarly journals Novel Polyanions Inhibiting Replication of Influenza Viruses

2016 ◽  
Vol 60 (4) ◽  
pp. 1955-1966 ◽  
Author(s):  
Justyna Ciejka ◽  
Aleksandra Milewska ◽  
Magdalena Wytrwal ◽  
Jacek Wojarski ◽  
Anna Golda ◽  
...  
Keyword(s):  
Influenza A ◽  
Ex Vivo ◽  
Virus Assembly ◽  
Influenza Viruses ◽  
Airway Epithelial ◽  
B Virus ◽  
Influenza Activity ◽  
Epithelial Cultures ◽  
Poorly Soluble

ABSTRACTNovel sulfonated derivatives of poly(allylamine hydrochloride) (NSPAHs) and N-sulfonated chitosan (NSCH) have been synthesized, and their activity against influenza A and B viruses has been studied and compared with that of a series of carrageenans, marine polysaccharides of well-documented anti-influenza activity. NSPAHs were found to be nontoxic and very soluble in water, in contrast to gel-forming and thus generally poorly soluble carrageenans.In vitroandex vivostudies using susceptible cells (Madin-Darby canine kidney epithelial cells and fully differentiated human airway epithelial cultures) demonstrated the antiviral effectiveness of NSPAHs. The activity of NSPAHs was proportional to the molecular mass of the chain and the degree of substitution of amino groups with sulfonate groups. Mechanistic studies showed that the NSPAHs and carrageenans inhibit influenza A and B virus assembly in the cell.

scholarly journals Influenza B viruses exhibit lower within-host diversity than influenza A viruses in human hosts

2019 ◽  
Author(s):  
Andrew L. Valesano ◽  
William J. Fitzsimmons ◽  
John T. McCrone ◽  
Joshua G. Petrie ◽  
Arnold S. Monto ◽  
...  
Keyword(s):  
Genetic Diversity ◽  
Influenza A Virus ◽  
Influenza A ◽  
Evolutionary Dynamics ◽  
Influenza Viruses ◽  
Influenza B Virus ◽  
Influenza B ◽  
Influenza A Viruses ◽  
Community Based ◽  
B Virus

AbstractInfluenza B virus undergoes seasonal antigenic drift more slowly than influenza A, but the reasons for this difference are unclear. While the evolutionary dynamics of influenza viruses play out globally, they are fundamentally driven by mutation, reassortment, drift, and selection within individual hosts. These processes have recently been described for influenza A virus, but little is known about the evolutionary dynamics of influenza B virus (IBV) at the level of individual infections and transmission events. Here we define the within-host evolutionary dynamics of influenza B virus by sequencing virus populations from naturally-infected individuals enrolled in a prospective, community-based cohort over 8176 person-seasons of observation. Through analysis of high depth-of-coverage sequencing data from samples from 91 individuals with influenza B, we find that influenza B virus accumulates lower genetic diversity than previously observed for influenza A virus during acute infections. Consistent with studies of influenza A viruses, the within-host evolution of influenza B viruses is characterized by purifying selection and the general absence of widespread positive selection of within-host variants. Analysis of shared genetic diversity across 15 sequence-validated transmission pairs suggests that IBV experiences a tight transmission bottleneck similar to that of influenza A virus. These patterns of local-scale evolution are consistent with influenza B virus’ slower global evolutionary rate.ImportanceThe evolution of influenza virus is a significant public health problem and necessitates the annual evaluation of influenza vaccine formulation to keep pace with viral escape from herd immunity. Influenza B virus is a serious health concern for children, in particular, yet remains understudied compared to influenza A virus. Influenza B virus evolves more slowly than influenza A, but the factors underlying this are not completely understood. We studied how the within-host diversity of influenza B virus relates to its global evolution by sequencing viruses from a community-based cohort. We found that influenza B virus populations have lower within-host genetic diversity than influenza A virus and experience a tight genetic bottleneck during transmission. Our work provides insights into the varying dynamics of influenza viruses in human infection.

scholarly journals Pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic analysis of baloxavir marboxil, a novel cap-dependent endonuclease inhibitor, in a murine model of influenza virus infection

2020 ◽  
Vol 76 (1) ◽  
pp. 189-198
Author(s):  
Yoshinori Ando ◽  
Takeshi Noshi ◽  
Kenji Sato ◽  
Toru Ishibashi ◽  
Yuki Yoshida ◽  
...  
Keyword(s):  
Influenza Virus ◽  
Plasma Concentration ◽  
Influenza A ◽  
Lethal Dose ◽  
Influenza Viruses ◽  
Virus Titre ◽  
Dependent Endonuclease ◽  
Influenza A H1n1 ◽  
B Virus ◽  
Oseltamivir Phosphate

Abstract Background Baloxavir acid, the active form of the orally available prodrug baloxavir marboxil, is a novel cap-dependent endonuclease inhibitor of influenza virus. Baloxavir marboxil has been shown to rapidly reduce virus titres compared with oseltamivir in clinical studies. Objectives We investigated the relationship between pharmacokinetic (PK) parameters and antiviral activity of baloxavir acid based on virus titre reduction in lungs of infected mice. Methods BALB/c mice infected with a sub-lethal dose of influenza A(H1N1), A(H1N1)pdm09, A(H3N2) or type B virus were treated on day 5 with oral baloxavir marboxil (0.5–50 mg/kg q12h), subcutaneous baloxavir acid (0.25–8 mg/kg/day), oseltamivir phosphate (5 or 50 eq mg/kg q12h) or other antivirals for 1 day. Lung virus titres were assessed 24 h after initial antiviral dosing. PK testing was performed at up to 24 h post-dosing of baloxavir marboxil or baloxavir acid in A/WSN/33-infected mice and the PK/pharmacodynamic (PD) relationship was evaluated for baloxavir acid. Results Oral baloxavir marboxil administration showed dose-dependent virus titre reductions in lungs of mice infected with the different types/subtypes of influenza viruses 24 h post-dosing. Baloxavir marboxil at 15 mg/kg q12h resulted in ≥100-fold and ≥10-fold reductions in influenza A and B virus titres, respectively, compared with oseltamivir phosphate. PK/PD analysis showed that the plasma concentration at the end of the dosing interval (Cτ) or the plasma concentration at 24 h after initial dosing (C24) was the PK parameter predicting the virus titres at 24 h post-dosing of baloxavir acid. Conclusions PK/PD analysis of baloxavir acid based on virus titre reduction in this mouse model could be helpful in predicting and maximizing virological outcomes in clinical settings.

Circulation of influenza viruses in the epidemic season of 2018–2019 among people residing in Northern and Western Kazakhstan

2021 ◽  
Vol 19 (2) ◽  
pp. 70-75
Author(s):  
T.I. Glebova ◽  
◽  
N.G. Klivleyeva ◽  
A.M. Baimukhametova ◽  
N.T. Saktaganov ◽  
...  
Keyword(s):  
Influenza A ◽  
Genetic Material ◽  
Influenza Viruses ◽  
H3n2 Virus ◽  
Type B ◽  
Rt Pcr ◽  
Epidemic Season ◽  
Western Kazakhstan ◽  
B Virus ◽  
Serological Studies

Objective. Detection of influenza viruses among the population on the territory of the Northern and Western Kazakhstan during the 2018–2019 epidemic season. Patients and methods. The study involved 835 patients with ARVI symptoms. Biological samples were screened in real-time polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR), hemagglutination inhibition (HAI) assay, and enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA). Hemagglutinating agents were isolated in 9-10-day-old developing chicken embryos. Identification of isolates was carried out in RT-PCR and HAI assay. Results. 936 clinical samples (835 nasopharyngeal swabs and 101 blood serums) were collected from patients in the Northern (North Kazakhstan and Pavlodar oblasts) and Western (West Kazakhstan oblast) regions during the 2018–2019 epidemic season. Primary screening of 835 nasopharyngeal swabs revealed the genetic material of influenza virus in 20.48%, influenza A virus in 20.36%, and influenza B virus in 0.12%. Subtyping of PCR positive samples for influenza type A virus showed the presence of the genetic material of influenza A/H1N1pdm09 virus in 14.01%, A/H3N2 virus in 4.91%. The virus subtype was not established in 1.66%. Virological examination of nasopharyngeal swabs led to obtaining 14 isolates, of which 13 were identified as influenza A/H1N1pdm09 viruses and 1 as influenza A/H3N2 virus. Serological studies of 101 blood serums in the HAI assay showed the presence of antihemagglutinins against influenza A/H1N1pdm09 virus in 28.71%, A/H3N2 virus in 30.69%, type B virus in 3.96% of the total number of samples. Antibodies simultaneously against two subtypes of influenza viruses (A and B) were detected in 12.87% of cases. In ELISA antibodies against influenza A/H1N1 virus were revealed in 24.75% of cases, A/H3N2 virus in 19.80%, type B virus in 14.85%. Antibodies simultaneously against two types of influenza viruses (A and B) were detected in 2.97% of blood serums. Conclusion. The results of virological and serological studies presented in the paper suggest circulation of influenza A/H1N1pdm09, A/H3N2, and type B viruses in the examined oblasts of Kazakhstan during the 2018–2019 season. Key words: virus, hemagglutinin, influenza, diagnosis, isolate, neuraminidase, circulation

scholarly journals N2Gas Plasma Inactivates Influenza Virus by Inducing Changes in Viral Surface Morphology, Protein, and Genomic RNA

2013 ◽  
Vol 2013 ◽  
pp. 1-7 ◽  
Author(s):  
Akikazu Sakudo ◽  
Naohiro Shimizu ◽  
Yuichiro Imanishi ◽  
Kazuyoshi Ikuta
Keyword(s):  
Influenza Virus ◽  
Plasma Treatment ◽  
Influenza A ◽  
Allantoic Fluid ◽  
High Voltage Pulse ◽  
Influenza Viruses ◽  
Blue Staining ◽  
Enzyme Linked Immunosorbent Assay ◽  
Gas Plasma ◽  
Electron Microscopy Analysis

We have recently treated with N2gas plasma and achieved inactivation of bacteria. However, the effect of N2gas plasma on viruses remains unclear. With the aim of developing this technique, we analyzed the virucidal effect of N2gas plasma on influenza virus and its influence on the viral components. We treated influenza virus particles with inert N2gas plasma (1.5 kpps; kilo pulses per second) produced by a short high-voltage pulse generated from a static induction thyristor power supply. A bioassay using chicken embryonated eggs demonstrated that N2gas plasma inactivated influenza virus in allantoic fluid within 5 min. Immunochromatography, enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay, and Coomassie brilliant blue staining showed that N2gas plasma treatment of influenza A and B viruses in nasal aspirates and allantoic fluids as well as purified influenza A and B viruses induced degradation of viral proteins including nucleoprotein. Analysis using the polymerase chain reaction suggested that N2gas plasma treatment induced changes in the viral RNA genome. Scanning electron microscopy analysis showed that aggregation and fusion of influenza viruses were induced by N2gas plasma treatment. We believe these biochemical changes may contribute to the inactivation of influenza viruses by N2gas plasma.

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