Effect of nitrogen on growth, fruit quality and nutrient uptake of tomatoes grown in sand culture

1988 ◽  
Vol 28 (3) ◽  
pp. 391 ◽  
Author(s):  
DO Huett ◽  
EB Dettmann
Keyword(s):  
Nutrient Uptake ◽  
Growth Rates ◽  
Growth Period ◽  
Dry Weight ◽  
Sand Culture ◽  
Surface Model ◽  
Similar Response ◽  
Dry Matter Content ◽  
N Application ◽  
Uptake Rates

The effect of nitrogen (N) application level on fruit yield and quality, growth and nutrient uptake ofthe tomato cv. Flora-Dade was investigated in a sand culture experiment. Plants were harvested at regular intervals over a 16-week period and N levels (1.07, 5.36, 10.71 and 32.14 mmol L-1 of N as nitrate) were applied each day in a complete nutrient solution which was formulated to provide a stable and balanced nutrient supply. A response surface model fitted actual growth and nutrient uptake data quite precisely (R2> 0.96) over the range 1-32 mmol L-1 of N. From this model predicted growth and nutrient uptake rates were derived. At final harvest, increases in the level of applied N increased the number of fruit set and increased the dry weight of roots, leaf, stem and fruit. Fresh and dry weight of fruit responded to N up to 32 mmol L-I, whereas vegetative and root dry weight failed to respond beyond 11 mmol L-1 N. The firmest fruit with the highest dry matter content were grown at N levels of 11 and 32 mmol L-1. Fruit with the highest total soluble solids content were grown at N levels of 1 and 32 mmol L-1. Fruit dominated top growth over the last 6 weeks of the growth period, when the maximum predicted growth rate by tops of 151 g plant-1 week-1 was calculated to occur 10 weeks after transplanting at an N application level of 2 1 mmol L-1. Similar growth rates were predicted over the N range 18-32 mmol L-1, with rates increasing rapidly up to early fruit harvest and remaining high. Predicted nutrient uptake rates followed a similar response to growth rates. The maximum uptake rates (g plant-1 week-1) were 3.65 N, 6.19 potassium, 0.83 phosphorus, 2.03 calcium and 0.59 magnesium. We conclude that, in order to achieve optimum nutrition and hence maximum growth rates and quality of tomatoes under field conditions, the application of N and K fertilisers should be matched to the high demand which occurs over the fruit growth period.

Effect of nitrogen on growth, quality and nutrient uptake of cabbages grown in sand culture

1989 ◽  
Vol 29 (6) ◽  
pp. 875 ◽  
Author(s):  
DO Huett ◽  
EB Dettmann
Keyword(s):  
Nutrient Uptake ◽  
Growth Rates ◽  
Low Fertility ◽  
Sand Culture ◽  
Surface Model ◽  
Growth Stages ◽  
Similar Response ◽  
N Application ◽  
Application Range ◽  
Uptake Rates

The effect of nitrogen (N) application level on head yield and quality, growth and nutrient uptake of cabbages (cv. Rampo) was investigated in a sand culture experiment. Plants were harvested at a minimum of 2-week intervals over a 13-week period and N levels (2, 7, 14, 29 and 43 mmol/L as nitrate) were applied each day in a complete nutrient solution which was formulated to provide a stable and balanced nutrient supply. A gamma cubic response surface model fitted actual growth and nutrient uptake data quite precisely (R2 > 0.99) over the range 2-43 mmolb N. This model was used to derive the predicted plant growth and nutrient uptake rates. Head maturity occurred 12 weeks after transplanting when increases in the level of applied N, up to 14 mmol/L, increased the dry weight of roots, stem, leaf and head, and the fresh weight of head. Higher N levels reduced the weight of plant parts. Heads with the lowest percentage of dry matter were produced over the 7-14 mmol/L N application range. Growth rate of tops was low during the 4-week period after transplanting. It then increased rapidly to the maximum predicted value of 43 g/plant.week which was calculated to occur 9 weeks after transplanting at an N application level of 21 mmo/L. Similar growth rates were recorded over the 14-29 mmol/L N application range. Growth rates declined slightly at higher N levels and declined at later growth stages. Predicted nutrient uptake rates followed a similar response pattern to growth rates. The maximum uptake rates (g/plant.week), calculated to occur 8 weeks after transplanting at an N application level of 21 mmol/L, were: N, 1.30; potassium, 2.50; phosphorus, 0.23; calcium, 0.71; magnesium, 0.14; and sulfur, 0.60. We conclude that on low fertility soils, in order to achieve optimum nutrition and hence maximum growth rates and quality of cabbages under field conditions, the application rates of N and K fertilisers need to be flexible to meet the high nutrient demand which occurs after head formation and before final harvest.

Nutrient uptake and partitioning by zucchini squash, head lettuce and potato in response to nitrogen

1992 ◽  
Vol 43 (7) ◽  
pp. 1653 ◽  
Author(s):  
DO Huett ◽  
EB Dettmann
Keyword(s):  
Nutrient Uptake ◽  
Solanum Tuberosum L ◽  
Growth Period ◽  
Sand Culture ◽  
Reproductive Growth ◽  
Plant Parts ◽  
Whole Plant ◽  
Quadratic Response ◽  
N Deficiency ◽  
Uptake Data

The effect of N application level on uptake and partitioning of nutrients by zucchini squash (Cucurbita pepo L.) cv. Blackjack, head lettuce (Lactuca sativa L.) cv. Monte110 and potato (Solanum tuberosum L.) cv. Sebago was investigated in sand culture experiments with a stable nutrient supply. Plants were grown during 14 (zucchini squash), 8 (lettuce) and 12 weeks (potato). Five nitrate N levels ranging from 2-36 mol m-3 for lettuce and 2-43 mol m-3 for zucchini squash and potato were applied in a complete nutrient solution. Gamma x quadratic response surface models fitted actual nutrient uptake data (R2> 0 . 9 5 ) . From these models, predicted nutrient uptake, partitioning of nutrients between plant parts and nutrient uptake rates were derived. Nitrogen had a pronounced effect on nutrient uptake of all species. The maximum predicted whole plant (excluding roots) uptake of N and K (parenthesis) was calculated (mol m-3 N) for zucchini squash (19.3, 17.7), lettuce (16.5, 12.1) and potato (12.7, 11.2) respectively. An N deficiency (2 mol m-3)did not result in remobilization of nutrients from vegetative to reproductive growth for zucchini squash and potato. Remobilization of N and K from outer leaves to head occurred for lettuce over the last week of the growth period at all N levels. An N deficiency increased partitioning of N and K by 36 and 54% respectively to reproductive growth for zucchini squash compared with adequate N for fresh yield (14 mol m-3), whereas an N deficiency had a negligible effect on partitioning to reproductive growth for potato. Partitioning, as measured by the ratio of nutrients in fruit, head or tuber to whole plant increased over the growth period, and at final harvest, partitioning was lowest for Ca (0.22-0.24 zucchini squash, 0.21-0.32 lettuce and 0.03-0.09 potato) and highest for K (0.39-0.60 zucchini squash, 0.59-0.68 lettuce and 0.63-0.86 potato). Potato tubers and lettuce head, in contrast to zucchini squash fruit, were dominant sinks for N, K and P.

Modelling nutrient uptake: a possible indicator of phosphorus deficiency

Soil Research ◽  
1997 ◽  
Vol 35 (2) ◽  
pp. 313 ◽  
Author(s):  
D. S. Mendham ◽  
P. J. Smethurst ◽  
P. W. Moody ◽  
R. L. Aitken
Keyword(s):  
Nutrient Uptake ◽  
Phosphorus Deficiency ◽  
Soil Phosphorus ◽  
Soil Nutrient ◽  
Growth Period ◽  
Dry Weight ◽  
Root Surface ◽  
P Uptake ◽  
P Deficiency ◽  
Highly Correlated

An understanding of the processes controlling soil nutrient supply and plant uptake has led to process-based models that can predict nutrient uptake and the concentration gradient that develops at the root surface. By using this information, it may be possible to develop an indicator of soil phosphorus status based on the predicted uptake and/or concentration of phosphorus (P) at the root surface. To identify the potential for such a test, the relationships between model output and observed plant growth were examined using data from a published experiment. The experiment was initially designed to investigate the relationship between common indices of soil-available P and the growth of maize (Zea mays) in 26 surface soils from Queensland. There was a high correlation between observed and predicted P uptake, and between relative dry matter yield and predicted P uptake. The predicted concentration of P at the root surface was also highly correlated with P uptake and dry weight increase. It is hypothesised that the short growth period (25 days) was responsible for the high correlation between P uptake and measured soil solution P. The hypothesis that a predicted concentration of P at the root surface or predicted P uptake may be valuable indicators of P deficiency in the longer term still remains to be tested.

scholarly journals CULTIVAR VARIATION IN APPLE FRUIT GROWTH RATES, SORBITOL ACCUMULATION, AND TISSUE OSMOTIC POTENTIAL

HortScience ◽  
1990 ◽  
Vol 25 (9) ◽  
pp. 1070b-1070
Author(s):  
Dougles D. Archbold
Keyword(s):  
Growth Rates ◽  
Osmotic Potential ◽  
Fruit Size ◽  
Dry Weight ◽  
Apple Fruit ◽  
Cellular Level ◽  
Fruit Growth ◽  
Tissue Samples ◽  
Uptake Rates

Absolute and relative fruit growth rates (AGR and RGR) of 5 cultivars were calculated from the oven-dry weights of fruits harvested periodically throughout the growing season. Both AGR and RGR were higher for larger fruit of different cultivars with similar days to maturity, and for summer- versus fall-ripening cultivars. Seasonal variability in AGR and RGR was observed, Apple fruit cortex disks were incubated in 14C-sorbitol solutions in vitro to determine if uptake rates at the cellular level varied between cultivars. Rates of sorbitol accumulation, expressed es μg sorbitol per mg dry weight cortex tissue, declined as the season progressed. Within a cuitivar, uptake rates were not relatad to fruit size, nor were differences found between cortex tissue samples from competing fruit on a spur. Sorbitol uptake rates were significantly lower for the more slowly-growing cultivar. The osmotic potential of the expressed cortex sap, sampled on several dates, was consistently lower for the more rapidly-growing cultivar. Thus, inherent differences in fruit growth rates among cultivars may be due to variation in regulation of osmotic potential.

scholarly journals VA MYCORRHIZAL INFLUENCE ON GROWTH AND MINERAL UPTAKE OF POTATO

HortScience ◽  
1990 ◽  
Vol 25 (9) ◽  
pp. 1161e-1161
Author(s):  
D.A.J. McArthur ◽  
N.R. Knowles
Keyword(s):  
Mycorrhizal Fungi ◽  
Soil Phosphorus ◽  
Growth Period ◽  
Arbuscular Mycorrhizal ◽  
Dry Weight ◽  
Morphological Development ◽  
Similar Response ◽  
Dry Matter Accumulation ◽  
P Deficiency ◽  
Soil P

The growth response of potato to infection by vesicular-arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (VAM) (Glomus dimorphicum, G. intraradices, and G. mosseae), at increasing levels of soil phosphorus (P), was related to VAM-altered mineral status of the plant. In addition, the morphological development of the VAM was characterized using light and scanning electron microscopy.Four weeks after inoculation, arbuscules and coiled hyphae were the predominate fungal structures within the roots, however, vesicle development increased steadily over the remainder of the 12 week growth period. As expected, the percent infection of roots by VAM decreased with increasing soil-P level. Leaf area, relative growth rate (RGR), lateral branching and root dry weight were increased by VAM, although the relative-response diminished with increasing soil-P level. A similar response to VAM-infection was evident for the concentration of and total shoot N, P and K. Examination of the shoot N status indicated that VAM influenced the rates at which the plant was partitioning N into various N pools. But again, differences between non-VAM and VAM plants tended to decrease with increasing soil-P level. These results indicate that VAM modification of dry matter accumulation and nutrient uptake is mostly a consequence of the alleviation of P-deficiency of the plant and the improved growth of roots, allowing increased mineral absorption.

scholarly journals Effects of Different Nitrogen and Sulfur Fertilizer Rates on Growth, Yield, Quality and Nutrient Uptake of Onion (Allium cepa L.) at Shewa Robit, North Shewa, Ethiopia

2021 ◽  
Vol 15 (1) ◽  
pp. 59-67
Author(s):  
Mandefro Tilahun ◽  
Wondwosen Tena ◽  
Bizuayehu Desta
Keyword(s):  
Nutrient Uptake ◽  
Block Design ◽  
N Uptake ◽  
Growth Yield ◽  
Dry Weight ◽  
Average Weight ◽  
Dry Matter Content ◽  
Area Index ◽  
Yield And Quality ◽  
Yield Quality

Background: Onion is one of the most important crops widely cultivated throughout the world, including Ethiopia. The production of onion is mainly affected by the inadequate application of inorganic fertilizer types and rates. Objective: A field experiment was conducted to evaluate the effect of nitrogen and sulfur fertilizers on the growth, yield, quality, and nutrient uptake of onion at Shewa Robit in 2018/19 under irrigation. Methods: The experiment consisted of four nitrogen rates (100, 150, 200, and 250 kg N /ha) and five sulfur rates (0, 15, 30, 45, and 60kg S/ha). The treatments were laid out in a factorial arrangement with three replications using randomized complete block design (RCBD). Bombay Red was used as a testing onion variety. Results: The interaction effect of nitrogen and sulfur significantly increased plant height, leaf length, leaf diameter, leaf area index, neck diameter, shoot dry weight, bulb fresh weight and bulb dry weight, percent dry matter content, yield, and quality parameters. The application of 200kg N/ha and 45 kg S/ha resulted in the highest yield (42.6 t ha-1), the average weight of bulb (193.6g), and a marketable bulb (99.8%). The highest N uptake (243.3 kg ha-1) and S uptake (31.9kg ha-1) were obtained by the combined application of 200 kgN/ha and 45kg S/ha. Conclusion: The application of 200 kgN/ha and 45kgS/ha can be recommended for high yield and quality onion production in the study area.

Determination of critical nitrogen concentrations of potato (Solanum tuberosum L. cv. Sebago) grown in sand culture

1992 ◽  
Vol 32 (6) ◽  
pp. 765 ◽  
Author(s):  
DO Huett ◽  
E White
Keyword(s):  
Dry Matter ◽  
Maximum Yield ◽  
Growth Period ◽  
Sand Culture ◽  
N Application ◽  
Total N ◽  
Nitrate N ◽  
Nitrate Concentrations ◽  
Petiole Sap ◽  
Leaf Nitrate

A gamma x cubic response surface model was used to predict the dry matter yield of potato cv. Sebago over the 12-week growth period in sand culture with nitrogen (N) levels of 2, 7, 14, 29 and 43 mmol N/L. At each 2-week sampling period after emergence, dry matter yield relative to maximum was plotted against tissue N concentration to derive diagnostic petiole, petiole sap, leaf nitrate-N and leaf total N in youngest fully opened leaf (YFOL), youngest fully expanded leaf (YFEL) and oldest green leaf (OL) and for total N in bulked leaves. Critical concentrations corresponding to 90% maximum yield are presented. Tissue nitrate was much more responsive than leaf total N to applied N over the 2-14 mmol/L range where positive growth responses to N were recorded. Plants grown with 2 mmol N/L were severely N deficient and growth was depressed. Tissue nitrate concentrations in these plants from 4 weeks after emergence onwards were negligible, while leaf total N concentrations exceeded 2.36%. Salt toxicity occurred at 29 and 43 mmol NIL, and it sometimes reduced tissue N concentrations so that adequacy and toxicity concentrations overlapped. Critical tissue N concentrations declined over the growth period, the largest decline occurring for nitrate. Critical tissue N concentrations for YFEL, from 2 weeks after emergence to final harvest were: petiole sap nitrate-N, 1.2-0.2 g/L; petiole nitrate-N, 2.1-0.1%; leaf nitrate-N, 0.44-0.08%. Critical tissue nitrate concentrations clearly differentiated between inadequate and adequate N application levels. Critical leaf total N concentrations only differentiated between inadequate and marginal N application rates, except for OL when inadequate and marginally adequate (80-90% maximum yield) concentrations were not different (P>0.05). Nitrogen application level affected (P<0.05) leaf potassium, phosphorus, calcium (Ca), magnesium (Mg) and sulfur concentrations. The largest effects were recorded for Ca and Mg where increasing N application level reduced leaf nutrient concentration. Petiole sap nitrate concentrations can be used as a rapid field test for distinguishing between a deficient and an adequate N supply. Where concentrations exceed critical values, they can be interpreted as such because N fertiliser toxicity rarely occurs under field conditions.

Determination of critical nitrogen concentrations of lettuce (Lactuca sativa L. cv. Montello) grown in sand culture

1992 ◽  
Vol 32 (6) ◽  
pp. 759 ◽  
Author(s):  
DO Huett ◽  
E White
Keyword(s):  
Dry Matter ◽  
Growth Period ◽  
Sand Culture ◽  
N Application ◽  
Total N ◽  
N Supply ◽  
Nitrate N ◽  
N Concentration ◽  
Nitrate Concentrations ◽  
Petiole Sap

A gamma x cubic response surface model was used to predict the dry matter yield of lettuce cv. Montello over the 8-week growth period in sand culture with nitrogen (N) levels of 2, 5, 11, 18 and 36 mmol/L. At 1, 2, 3, 5, 7 and 8 weeks after transplanting, dry matter yield relative to maximum was plotted against tissue N concentration to derive diagnostic concentrations of petiole sap nitrate-N and leaf total N in youngest fully opened leaf (YFOL), youngest fully expanded leaf (YFEL) and oldest green leaf (OL), and total N in bulked leaf samples. Critical concentrations corresponding to 90% maximum yield are presented. Growth was consistently depressed at 2 mmol N/L due to N deficiency, and at 36 mmol N/L due to salt toxicity. Petiole sap nitrate concentrations were more responsive than leaf total N concentrations to N application levels. Leaf N concentrations at N application levels of 18 and 36 mmol/L were often similar. Critical leaf total N concentrations in YFOL and YFEL decreased from 2 weeks after transplanting to maturity, whereas the opposite trend occurred for petiole sap nitrate concentrations. Critical total N concentration ranges in YFEL were 0.30-0.95 g/L for petiole sap nitrate-N, and 4.00-5.30% for leaf total N concentration. Critical leaf total N and petiole sap nitrate concentrations clearly differentiated between inadequate and adequate N application rates. Critical values in most cases, differentiated toxic concentrations. Nitrogen application levels of 2 and 36 mmol N/L reduced (P<0.05) potassium, calcium and magnesium concentrations in all leaves. This confirms the importance of optimising N supply when determining critical levels of these nutrients for lettuce. Petiole sap nitrate-N concentrations, which can be determined rapidly in the field, can be used to distinguish between a deficient and an adequate N supply. The marked increase in critical concentration over the growth period requires consecutive determinations to verify the N status of lettuce.

Salinity Tolerance of Black Gram Cultivars During Germination and Early Seedling Growth

2018 ◽  
Vol 51 (3) ◽  
pp. 51-68 ◽  
Author(s):  
M.K. Hasan ◽  
M.S. Islam ◽  
M.R. Islam ◽  
H.N. Ismaan ◽  
A. El Sabagh
Keyword(s):  
Salt Stress ◽  
Salinity Tolerance ◽  
Seedling Growth ◽  
Negative Impact ◽  
Germination Rate ◽  
Dry Weight ◽  
Germination Percentage ◽  
Shoot Length ◽  
Sand Culture ◽  
Black Gram

Abstract A laboratory experiment regarding germination and seedling growth test was conducted with three black gram genotypes tested under three salinity levels (0, 75 and 150 mM), for 10 days, in sand culture within small plastic pot, to investigate the germination and seedling growth characteristics. Different germination traits of all black gram genotypes, like germination percentage (GP), germination rate (GR), coefficient of velocity of germination (CVG) greatly reduced, as well as mean germination time (MGT) increased with increasing salt stress. At high salt stress, BARI Mash-3 provided the highest GP reduction (28.58%), while the lowest was recorded (15.79% to control) in BARI Mash-1. Salinity have the negative impact on shoot and root lengths, fresh and dry weights. The highest (50.32% to control) and lowest reduction (36.39%) of shoot length were recorded in BARI Mash-2 and BARI Mash-1, respectively, under 150 mM NaCl saline conditions. There were significant reduction of root lengths, root fresh and dry weight, shoot length, shoot fresh and dry weight in all genotypes under saline condition. The genotypes were arranged as BARI Mash-1 > BARI Mash-3 > BARI Mash-2, with respect to salinity tolerance.

Persistence of modern varieties and hybrids of carrots and its dependence on the biochemical composition

2020 ◽  
pp. 16-19
Author(s):  
Е.В. Янченко
Keyword(s):  
Botrytis Cinerea ◽  
Sclerotinia Sclerotiorum ◽  
Dry Matter ◽  
Inverse Correlation ◽  
Dry Weight ◽  
Matter Content ◽  
White Rot ◽  
Dry Matter Content ◽  
Important Indicator ◽  
Modern Varieties

Цель исследований – дать оценку сохраняемости и болезнеустойчивости современных сортов и гибридов моркови столовой и определить корреляционные зависимости влияния биохимических показателей качества на сохраняемость и степень поражения моркови столовой различными видами болезней в процессе хранения. Исследования проводились в 2011–2016 годах во ВНИИО – филиале ФГБНУ ФНЦО по общепринятым методикам. В биохимической лаборатории отдела земледелия и агрохимии содержание сухого вещества определяли высушиванием до абсолютно сухого веса, общего сахара – по Бертрану, аскорбиновой кислоты – по Мурри, нитраты – ионоселективным методом. При характеристике моркови столовой важнейший показатель, определяющий его качество – количество сухого вещества и сахаров. В процессе хранения были выявлены следующие болезни моркови: серая гниль (Botrytis cinerea Pers. ex Fr.), белая гниль (Sclerotinia sclerotiorum (Lib.)), белая парша (Rhizoctonia carotae Rad.), альтернариоз (Alternaria radicina M., Dr. et E.). В большей степени сортообразцы моркови столовой поражались серой гнилью. Лучшими по сохраняемости сортообразцами были Корсар (94,6%), F1Берлин (94,5%), Берликум Роял (94,1%) и F1 Звезда (94%). Сохраняемость у зарубежных сортов и гибридов моркови столовой была немного выше, чем у отечественных (на 0,4%) как за счет меньшей величины убыли массы (6,3% против 6,4%), так и потерь от болезней (1,6% против 1,9%). Сохраняемость корнеплодов моркови находится в прямой корреляционной зависимости от содержания сухого вещества (r=+0,41), каротиноидов (r=+0,39), моносахаров (r­=+0,30) и суммы сахаров (r=+0,27). Проявление серой гнили находится в обратной корреляционной связи с содержанием сухого вещества и каротиноидов (r=-0,37 и r=-0,35 соответственно), белой парши – в прямой корреляции с содержанием сухого вещества , моносахаров и дисахаров (r= +0,21; r= +0,39; r= -0,41 соответственно), белой гнили в обратной корреляционной связи с содержанием сухого вещества, моносахаров и дисахаров. The purpose of the research is to assess the persistence and disease resistance of modern varieties and hybrids of carrots and to determine the correlation between the influence of biochemical quality indicators on the persistence and degree of damage to carrots by various types of diseases during storage. The research was conducted in 2011–2016 at ARRIVG – branch of FSBSI FSVC, according to generally accepted methods. In the biochemical laboratory of the Department of Agriculture and Agrochemistry, the dry matter content was determined by drying to absolutely dry weight, total sugar – by Bertran, ascorbic acid – by Murri, nitrates – by the ion-selective method. When describing carrots, the most important indicator that determines its quality is the amount of dry matter and sugars. During storage, the following diseases of carrots were detected: gray rot (Botrytis cinerea Pers. ex Fr.), white rot (Sclerotinia sclerotiorum (Lib.), white scab (Rhizoctonia carotae Rad.), alternariasis (Alternaria radicina M., Dr. et E.). To a greater extent, varieties of table carrots were affected by gray rot. The best preserved varieties were Corsar (94.6%), F1 Berlin (94.5%), Berlicum Royal (94.1%) and F1 Zvezda (94%). The persistence of foreign varieties and hybrids of table carrots was slightly higher than that of domestic ones by 0.4%. both due to a smaller amount of weight loss (6.3% vs. 6.4%) and losses from diseases (1.6% vs. 1.9%). The persistence of carrot root crops is directly correlated with the content of dry matter (r=+0.41), carotenoids (r=+0.39), monosaccharides (r=+0.30) and the amount of sugars (r=+0.27). The manifestation of gray rot is in inverse correlation with the content of dry matter and carotenoids (r=-0.37 and r=-0.35, respectively), white scab is in direct correlation with the content of dry matter (r= +0.21; r= +0.39; r= –0.41, respectively), white rot is in inverse correlation with the content of dry matter, monosaccharides and disaccharides.

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