A Reality Check on Hardy–Weinberg

G. H. Hardy (1877–1947) and Wilhelm Weinberg (1862–1937) had very different lives, but in the minds of geneticists, the two are inextricably linked through the ownership of an apparently simple law called the Hardy–Weinberg law. We demonstrate that the simplicity is more apparent than real. Hardy derived the well-known trio of frequencies {q2, 2pq, p2} with a concise demonstration, whereas for Weinberg it was the prelude to an ingenious examination of the inheritance of twinning in man. Hardy's recourse to an identity relating to the distribution of types among offspring following random mating, rather than an identity relating to the mating matrix, may be the reason why he did not realize that Hardy–Weinberg equilibrium can be reached and sustained with non-random mating. The phrase ‘random mating’ always comes up in reference to the law. The elusive nature of this phrase is part of the reason for the misunderstandings that occur but also because, as we explain, mathematicians are able to use it in a different way from the man-in-the-street. We question the unthinking appeal to random mating as a model and explanation of the distribution of genotypes even when they are close to Hardy–Weinberg proportions. Such sustained proportions are possible under non-random mating.