scholarly journals Changes in diversity and community assembly of jumping spiders (Araneae: Salticidae) after rainforest conversion to rubber and oil palm plantations

PeerJ ◽  
2021 ◽  
Vol 9 ◽  
pp. e11012
Author(s):  
André Junggebauer ◽  
Tamara R. Hartke ◽  
Daniel Ramos ◽  
Ina Schaefer ◽  
Damayanti Buchori ◽  
...  
Keyword(s):  
Land Use ◽  
Community Assembly ◽  
Oil Palm ◽  
Phylogenetic Diversity ◽  
Plant Biomass ◽  
Canopy Openness ◽  
Tropical Asia ◽  
Land Use Systems ◽  
Top Predators ◽  
Jungle Rubber

Rainforest conversion into monoculture plantations results in species loss and community shifts across animal taxa. The effect of such conversion on the role of ecophysiological properties influencing communities, and conversion effects on phylogenetic diversity and community assembly mechanisms, however, are rarely studied in the same context. Here, we compare salticid spider (Araneae: Salticidae) communities between canopies of lowland rainforest, rubber agroforest (“jungle rubber”) and monoculture plantations of rubber or oil palm, sampled in a replicated plot design in Jambi Province, Sumatra, Indonesia. Overall, we collected 912 salticid spider individuals and sorted them to 70 morphospecies from 21 genera. Salticid richness was highest in jungle rubber, followed by rainforest, oil palm and rubber, but abundance of salticids did not differ between land-use systems. Community composition was similar in jungle rubber and rainforest but different from oil palm and rubber, which in turn were different from each other. The four investigated land-use systems differed in aboveground plant biomass, canopy openness and land use intensity, which explained 12% of the observed variation in canopy salticid communities. Phylogenetic diversity based on ~850 bp 28S rDNA fragments showed similar patterns as richness, that is, highest in jungle rubber, intermediate in rainforest, and lowest in the two monoculture plantations. Additionally, we found evidence for phylogenetic clustering of salticids in oil palm, suggesting that habitat filtering is an important factor shaping salticid spider communities in monoculture plantations. Overall, our study offers a comprehensive insight into the mechanisms shaping communities of arthropod top predators in canopies of tropical forest ecosystems and plantations, combining community ecology, environmental variables and phylogenetics across a land-use gradient in tropical Asia.

scholarly journals Ecological and socio-economic functions across tropical land use systems after rainforest conversion

2016 ◽  
Vol 371 (1694) ◽  
pp. 20150275 ◽  
Author(s):  
Jochen Drescher ◽  
Katja Rembold ◽  
Kara Allen ◽  
Philip Beckschäfer ◽  
Damayanti Buchori ◽  
...  
Keyword(s):  
Land Use ◽  
Oil Palm ◽  
Labour Productivity ◽  
Agricultural Landscapes ◽  
Ecosystem Functions ◽  
Economic Interests ◽  
Land Use Systems ◽  
Crop Choice ◽  
Below Ground ◽  
Jungle Rubber

Tropical lowland rainforests are increasingly threatened by the expansion of agriculture and the extraction of natural resources. In Jambi Province, Indonesia, the interdisciplinary EFForTS project focuses on the ecological and socio-economic dimensions of rainforest conversion to jungle rubber agroforests and monoculture plantations of rubber and oil palm. Our data confirm that rainforest transformation and land use intensification lead to substantial losses in biodiversity and related ecosystem functions, such as decreased above- and below-ground carbon stocks. Owing to rapid step-wise transformation from forests to agroforests to monoculture plantations and renewal of each plantation type every few decades, the converted land use systems are continuously dynamic, thus hampering the adaptation of animal and plant communities. On the other hand, agricultural rainforest transformation systems provide increased income and access to education, especially for migrant smallholders. Jungle rubber and rubber monocultures are associated with higher financial land productivity but lower financial labour productivity compared to oil palm, which influences crop choice: smallholders that are labour-scarce would prefer oil palm while land-scarce smallholders would prefer rubber. Collecting long-term data in an interdisciplinary context enables us to provide decision-makers and stakeholders with scientific insights to facilitate the reconciliation between economic interests and ecological sustainability in tropical agricultural landscapes.

Bewirtschaftung von tropischen Sekundärwäldern

2002 ◽  
Vol 46 (1) ◽  
Author(s):  
Dietrich Schmidt-Vogt
Keyword(s):  
Land Use ◽  
Forest Cover ◽  
Stand Structure ◽  
Secondary Forest ◽  
Secondary Forests ◽  
Tropical Asia ◽  
Land Use Systems ◽  
The Future ◽  
The Tropics ◽  
Primary Forests

AbstractManagement of secondary tropical forests: a new perspective for sustainable use of forests in Asia. The decline of primary forests in the tropics is leading to a reassessment of the role secondary forests might play within the context of tropical forest management. Recent research has shown that secondary forests in the tropics can be both rich in species and complex in terms of stand structure. There is, moreover, a growing recognition of the importance of secondary forests for traditional subsistence economies in the tropics and of their economic potential for land use systems in the future. Management of secondary forests in Asia as an alternative to the extraction of timber from primary forests but also as one among other options to intensify traditional land use systems has a potential for the future especially because of the existence of vast tracts of valuable secondary forest cover, and because of the store of traditional knowledge that can still be found in tropical Asia.

scholarly journals Frequência, diversidade e composição da fauna de cupins (Blattodea: Isoptera) em diferentes sistemas de uso do solo no sudoeste do Amazonas, Brasil

2018 ◽  
Vol 11 (2) ◽  
pp. 78-84 ◽  
Author(s):  
Agno Nonato Serrão Acioli
Keyword(s):  
Land Use ◽  
Species Richness ◽  
Oil Palm ◽  
Elaeis Guineensis ◽  
Taxonomic Composition ◽  
Primary Forest ◽  
Agricultural Crops ◽  
Termite Species ◽  
Land Use Systems ◽  
Elaeis Guineensis Jacq

Resumo. Os cupins são importantes decompositores da matéria de origem vegetal. Este estudo teve como objetivo analisar e comparar a diversidade e composição das espécies de cupins em três diferentes sistemas de uso do solo na região do Alto Solimões, Amazonas, Brasil. Os cupins foram coletados na floresta primária, em cultivos de dendê (Elaeis guineensis Jacq.) e mandioca (Manihot sculenta Crantz). Em cada área selecionada as coletas foram realizadas dentro de um transecto retangular medindo 100 m x 2 m, subdivididos em 20 parcelas de 5 m x 2 m. Foram encontradas 24 espécies de cupins, pertencentes a 14 gêneros e duas famílias, nos três sistemas de uso do solo. As espécies mais frequentes foram Nasutitermes cf. dendrophilus (Desneux) (28,43%), seguida de Heterotermes tenuis (Hagen) (14,37%) e Anoplotermes sp. 2 (9,58%). A riqueza de espécies foi maior na floresta primária (16 espécies), seguida dos cultivos de dendê (14 espécies) e mandioca (seis espécies). A composição taxonômica e os grupos funcionais também sofreram modificações, sendo mais diversificados e equilibrados na floresta primária quando comparados com os dois tipos de cultivos. A comunidade de cupins é fortemente afetada quando ocorre a substituição da floresta primária pelos cultivos agrícolas. Neste estudo, as espécies N. cf. dendrophilus e H. tenuis merecem atenção, pois se constata o aumento de sua frequência nos cultivos de dendê e mandioca.Frequency, Diversity and Composition of Termite Fauna (Blattodea: Isoptera) in Land Use Systems in the Southwest of Amazonas, Brazil Abstract. Termites are important decomposers of matter of vegetable origin. This study aims to analyze and compare the diversity and composition of termite species in three different land use systems in Alto Solimões, Amazonas, Brazil. Termites were collected in the primary forest, oil palm (Elaeis guineensis Jacq.) and cassava (Manihot sculenta Crantz) crops. In each area the collections were made within a rectangular transect measuring 100 m x 2 m, subdivided into 20 plots of 5 m x 2 m. Twenty four species of termites were found, belonging to 14 genera and two families. The most frequent species were Nasutitermes cf. dendrophilus (Desneux) (28.43%), Heterotermes tenuis (Hagen) (14.37%) and Anoplotermes sp. 2 (9.58%). The species richness was higher in the primary forest (16 species), followed by oil palm (14 species) and cassava (six species) crops. The taxonomic composition and the functional groups were also modified, being more diversified and balanced in the primary forest than in the crops. The termite community was strongly affected when the primary forest was replaced by agricultural crops. The species N. cf. dendrophilus and H. tenuis deserve attention, it was verified the increase of their frequency in the crops.

scholarly journals Trophic niche differentiation and utilisation of food resources in Collembola is altered by rainforest conversion to plantation systems

PeerJ ◽  
2021 ◽  
Vol 9 ◽  
pp. e10971
Author(s):  
Winda Ika Susanti ◽  
Rahayu Widyastuti ◽  
Stefan Scheu ◽  
Anton Potapov
Keyword(s):  
Land Use ◽  
Oil Palm ◽  
Ecosystem Functioning ◽  
Trophic Structure ◽  
Niche Differentiation ◽  
Food Resources ◽  
Soil Conditions ◽  
Isotopic Niche ◽  
Land Use Systems ◽  
Trophic Niches

Intensively managed monoculture plantations are increasingly replacing natural forests across the tropics resulting in changes in ecological niches of species and communities, and in ecosystem functioning. Collembola are among the most abundant arthropods inhabiting the belowground system sensitively responding to changes in vegetation and soil conditions. However, most studies on the response of Collembola to land-use change were conducted in temperate ecosystems and focused on shifts in community composition or morphological traits, while parameters more closely linked to ecosystem functioning, such as trophic niches, received little attention. Here, we used stable isotope analysis (13C and 15N) to investigate changes in the trophic structure and use of food resources by Collembola in Jambi province (Sumatra, Indonesia), a region that experienced strong deforestation in the last decades. Isotopic values of Collembola from 32 sites representing four land-use systems were analyzed (rainforest, rubber agroforest, rubber (Hevea brasiliansis) and oil palm (Elaeis guineensis) monoculture plantations). Across Collembola species Δ13C values were highest in rainforest suggesting more pronounced processing of litter resources by microorganisms and consumption of these microorganisms by Collembola in this system. Lower Δ13C values, but high Δ13C variation in Collembola in oil palm plantations indicated that Collembola shifted towards herbivory and used more variable resources in this system. Small range in Δ15N values in Collembola species in monoculture plantations in comparison to rainforest indicated that conversion of rainforest into plantations is associated with simplification in the trophic structure of Collembola communities. This was further confirmed by generally lower isotopic niche differentiation among species in plantations. Across the studied ecosystems, atmobiotic species (Symphypleona and Paronellidae) occupied the lowest, whereas euedaphic Collembola species occupied the highest trophic position, resembling patterns in temperate forests. Some species of Paronellidae in rainforest and jungle rubber had Δ15N values below those of leaf litter suggesting algivory (Salina sp.1, Callyntrura sp.1 and Lepidonella sp.1), while a dominant species, Pseudosinella sp.1, had the highest Δ15N values in most of the land-use systems suggesting that this species at least in part lives as predator or scavenger. Overall, the results suggest that rainforest conversion into plantation systems is associated with marked shifts in the structure of trophic niches in soil and litter Collembola with potential consequences for ecosystem functioning and food-web stability.

scholarly journals Diversity and Seasonal Dynamics of Arthropods in Okomu Forest Reserve

2021 ◽  
pp. 23-36
Author(s):  
Adeduntan S. A. ◽  
Akinbi O. J. ◽  
Osabiya O. S. ◽  
Olusola J. A.
Keyword(s):  
Land Use ◽  
Oil Palm ◽  
Seasonal Dynamics ◽  
National Park ◽  
Species Abundance ◽  
Insect Species ◽  
Rubber Plantation ◽  
Forest Reserve ◽  
Land Use Systems ◽  
Oil Palm Plantation

A field survey was conducted in Okomu Forest Reserve Edo State, to assess the diversity and seasonal dynamics of arthropod species in selected land use systems (Okomu national park, Okomu rubber plantation and Okomu oil palm plantation). Samplings of arthropods were carried out between February and September 2020, arthropods were collected by hand picking and sweep net in each sampled plots at 25 m x 25 m in the study area. Insects encountered were killed and preserved by chloroform. Arthropods samples were taken to the laboratory for oven dry and identification. A total of 382 arthropods spread across 15 orders, 34 families and 81 species were recorded. The most dominant orders were Hymenoptera (Ants) followed by Odonta (dragonfly) and Lepidoptera (butterfly and Moth) during dry season while highest abundance of orders were Spirostreptida (millepde) followed by Hymenoptera (Ants) and Araneae (spider) during rainy season. Okomu National Park has the highest (220) insect species abundance follow by Okomu Rubber Plantation (136) while the least was Okomu Oil Palm Plantation (72) in the study area. Study revealed that Okomu Rubber Plantation has no record of Scolopendromorphra (centipede) andHemiptera (bug) while in Okomu Oil Palm Plantation no record of Scolopendromorphra (centipede), lepidoptera (butterfly), also there were norecord of blattodea (crockroach) order of insect species in Okomu National Park. The highest species diversity and evenness was observed in Okomu National Park (H’ = 3.03 and E’= 0.83) follow by Okomu Oil Palm Plantation (H’=1.89 and E’=0.86) while Okomu Rubber Plantation was the least (H’ = 1.53 and E’= 0.60). ANOVA showed significant (P≤0.05) different on diversity and abundance between land use systems while there is nosignificant (P≥0.05) different seasons in the study area. Observation was made on seasonal variation of arthropods species in different land use systems and dominant species as bio-indicators in the study area.

scholarly journals Conversion of tropical forests to smallholder rubber and oil palm plantations impacts nutrient leaching losses and nutrient retention efficiency in highly weathered soils

2018 ◽  
Vol 15 (16) ◽  
pp. 5131-5154 ◽  
Author(s):  
Syahrul Kurniawan ◽  
Marife D. Corre ◽  
Amanda L. Matson ◽  
Hubert Schulte-Bisping ◽  
Sri Rahayu Utami ◽  
...  
Keyword(s):  
Land Use ◽  
Oil Palm ◽  
Nutrient Retention ◽  
Nutrient Leaching ◽  
Land Uses ◽  
Retention Efficiency ◽  
Organic C ◽  
Leaching Losses ◽  
Land Use Conversion ◽  
Jungle Rubber

Abstract. Conversion of forest to rubber and oil palm plantations is widespread in Sumatra, Indonesia, and it is largely unknown how such land-use conversion affects nutrient leaching losses. Our study aimed to quantify nutrient leaching and nutrient retention efficiency in the soil after land-use conversion to smallholder rubber and oil palm plantations. In Jambi province, Indonesia, we selected two landscapes on highly weathered Acrisol soils that mainly differed in texture: loam and clay. Within each soil type, we compared two reference land uses, lowland forest and jungle rubber (defined as rubber trees interspersed in secondary forest), with two converted land uses: smallholder rubber and oil palm plantations. Within each soil type, the first three land uses were represented by 4 replicate sites and the oil palm by three sites, totaling 30 sites. We measured leaching losses using suction cup lysimeters sampled biweekly to monthly from February to December 2013. Forests and jungle rubber had low solute concentrations in drainage water, suggesting low internal inputs of rock-derived nutrients and efficient internal cycling of nutrients. These reference land uses on the clay Acrisol soils had lower leaching of dissolved N and base cations (P= 0.01–0.06) and higher N and base cation retention efficiency (P < 0.01–0.07) than those on the loam Acrisols. In the converted land uses, particularly on the loam Acrisol, the fertilized area of oil palm plantations showed higher leaching of dissolved N, organic C, and base cations (P < 0.01–0.08) and lower N and base cation retention efficiency compared to all the other land uses (P < 0.01–0.06). The unfertilized rubber plantations, particularly on the loam Acrisol, showed lower leaching of dissolved P (P=0.08) and organic C (P < 0.01) compared to forest or jungle rubber, reflecting decreases in soil P stocks and C inputs to the soil. Our results suggest that land-use conversion to rubber and oil palm causes disruption of initially efficient nutrient cycling, which decreases nutrient availability. Over time, smallholders will likely be increasingly reliant on fertilization, with the risk of diminishing water quality due to increased nutrient leaching. Thus, there is a need to develop management practices to minimize leaching while sustaining productivity.

scholarly journals Using a Bottom-Up Approach to Scale Leaf Photosynthetic Traits of Oil Palm, Rubber, and Two Coexisting Tropical Woody Species

Forests ◽  
2021 ◽  
Vol 12 (3) ◽  
pp. 359
Author(s):  
Ashehad A. Ali ◽  
Branindityo Nugroho ◽  
Fernando E. Moyano ◽  
Fabian Brambach ◽  
Michael W. Jenkins ◽  
...  
Keyword(s):  
Land Use ◽  
Land Use Change ◽  
Carbon Cycle ◽  
Oil Palm ◽  
Photosynthetic Capacity ◽  
Rubber Tree ◽  
Model Parameters ◽  
Rubber Plantation ◽  
Leaf Nitrogen Content ◽  
Jungle Rubber

Rainforest conversion to woody croplands impacts the carbon cycle via ecophysiological processes such as photosynthesis and autotrophic respiration. Changes in the carbon cycle associated with land-use change can be estimated through Land Surface Models (LSMs). The accuracy of carbon flux estimation in carbon fluxes associated with land-use change has been attributed to uncertainties in the model parameters affecting photosynthetic activity, which is a function of both carboxylation capacity (Vcmax) and electron transport capacity (Jmax). In order to reduce such uncertainties for common tropical woody crops and trees, in this study we measured Vcmax25 (Vcmax standardized to 25 °C), Jmax25 (Jmax standardized to 25 °C) and light-saturated photosynthetic capacity (Amax) of Elaeis guineensis Jacq. (oil palm), Hevea brasiliensis (rubber tree), and two native tree species, Eusideroxylon zwageri and Alstonia scholaris, in a converted landscape in Jambi province (Sumatra, Indonesia) at smallholder plantations. We considered three plantations; a monoculture rubber, a monoculture oil palm, and an agroforestry system (jungle rubber plantation), where rubber trees coexist with some native trees. We performed measurements on leaves at the lower part of the canopy, and used a scaling method based on exponential function to scale up photosynthetic capacity related traits to the top of the canopy. At the lower part of the canopy, we found (i) high Vcmax25 values for H. brasiliensis from monoculture rubber plantation and jungle rubber plantation that was linked to a high area-based leaf nitrogen content, and (ii) low value of Amax for E. guineensis from oil palm plantation that was due to a low value of Vcmax25 and a high value of dark respiration. At the top of the canopy, Amax varied much more than Vcmax25 among different land-use types. We found that photosynthetic capacity declined fastest from the top to the lower part of the canopy in oil palm plantations. We demonstrate that photosynthetic capacity related traits measured at the lower part of the canopy can be successfully scaled up to the top of the canopy. We thus provide helpful new data that can be used to constrain LSMs that simulate land-use change related to rubber and oil palm expansion.

scholarly journals Evaluation of Infiltration Models in Soils of Two Land Use Systems in Calabar, Nigeria

2018 ◽  
pp. 81-94
Author(s):  
Isong I.A ◽  
Ogban P.I. ◽  
Antigha N.R.B. ◽  
Okon P.B.
Keyword(s):  
Land Use ◽  
Oil Palm ◽  
Coefficient Of Determination ◽  
Or Efficiency ◽  
Infiltration Process ◽  
Teaching And Research ◽  
Land Use Systems ◽  
Cumulative Infiltration ◽  
Infiltration Models ◽  
The University

Recently, the importance of the infiltration process in agriculture and the environ- ment has resulted in an upsurge of interest by soil and water scientists to model the process for quantitative application. A study was conducted on the University of Cal- abar Teaching and Research Farm, Calabar to evaluate the effect of oil palm (OP) and arable farm (AF) land use systems on the Green-Ampt (GA), Philip (P), Kostiakov (K), Horton (H) and Mezencev (MZ) infiltration models, as well as the applicability or efficiency of the models to predict infiltration into the soils. Infiltration data were obtained with double-ring infiltrometer, and the parameters of the models were obtained through curve-fitting. Model accuracy was evaluated with the Willmott’s index of agreement (W), chi-square (X2), coefficient of determination (R2), root mean square error (RMSE) and mean error (ME) test statistics. The results showed that soil under oil palm had measured cumulative infiltration and infiltration rate of 72.81 cm and 14.10cm/hr while arable farm had 74.76 cm and 12.92 cm/hr, respectively. The cumulative infiltration predicted by Philip and Kostiakov models were very close to the field data for OP and AF. Horton and Mezencev models underestimated the infiltration process because their ME values were negative while Green–Ampt, Kostia- kov, and Philip overestimated the infiltration process as they had positive ME values. In terms of accuracy and applicability, the order of performance was P>K>MZ>GA>H. Therefore, the Philip and Kostiakov models could be used to pre- dict infiltration into the soils, but that the Philip model was superior to the Kostiakov model for the University of Calabar Teaching and Research Farm and similar soils in other ecologies.

scholarly journals Using Airborne Laser Scanning to Characterize Land-Use Systems in a Tropical Landscape Based on Vegetation Structural Metrics

2021 ◽  
Vol 13 (23) ◽  
pp. 4794
Author(s):  
Nicolò Camarretta ◽  
Martin Ehbrecht ◽  
Dominik Seidel ◽  
Arne Wenzel ◽  
Mohd. Zuhdi ◽  
...  
Keyword(s):  
Land Use ◽  
Oil Palm ◽  
Vegetation Structure ◽  
Native Species ◽  
Laser Scanning ◽  
Airborne Laser Scanning ◽  
Rubber Plantations ◽  
Airborne Laser ◽  
Jungle Rubber ◽  
Structural Metrics

Many Indonesian forests have been cleared and replaced by fast-growing cash crops (e.g., oil palm and rubber plantations), altering the vegetation structure of entire regions. Complex vegetation structure provides habitat niches to a large number of native species. Airborne laser scanning (ALS) can provide detailed three-dimensional information on vegetation structure. Here, we investigate the potential of ALS metrics to highlight differences across a gradient of land-use management intensities in Sumatra, Indonesia. We focused on tropical rainforests, jungle rubber, rubber plantations, oil palm plantations and transitional lands. Twenty-two ALS metrics were extracted from 183 plots. Analysis included a principal component analysis (PCA), analysis of variance (ANOVAs) and random forest (RF) characterization of the land use/land cover (LULC). Results from the PCA indicated that a greater number of canopy gaps are associated with oil palm plantations, while a taller stand height and higher vegetation structural metrics were linked with rainforest and jungle rubber. A clear separation in metrics performance between forest (including rainforest and jungle rubber) and oil palm was evident from the metrics pairwise comparison, with rubber plantations and transitional land behaving similar to forests (rainforest and jungle rubber) and oil palm plantations, according to different metrics. Lastly, two RF models were carried out: one using all five land uses (5LU), and one using four, merging jungle rubber with rainforest (4LU). The 5LU model resulted in a lower overall accuracy (51.1%) due to mismatches between jungle rubber and forest, while the 4LU model resulted in a higher accuracy (72.2%). Our results show the potential of ALS metrics to characterize different LULCs, which can be used to track changes in land use and their effect on ecosystem functioning, biodiversity and climate.

scholarly journals Conversion of tropical forests to smallholder rubber and oil palm plantations impacts nutrient leaching losses and nutrient retention efficiency in highly weathered soils

2018 ◽  
Author(s):  
Syahrul Kurniawan ◽  
Marife D. Corre ◽  
Amanda L. Matson ◽  
Hubert Schulte-Bisping ◽  
Sri Rahayu Utami ◽  
...  
Keyword(s):  
Land Use ◽  
Oil Palm ◽  
Secondary Forest ◽  
Nutrient Retention ◽  
Nutrient Leaching ◽  
Land Uses ◽  
Retention Efficiency ◽  
Leaching Losses ◽  
Land Use Conversion ◽  
Jungle Rubber

Abstract. Conversion of forest to rubber and oil palm plantations is widespread in Sumatra, Indonesia, and it is largely unknown how such land-use conversion affects nutrient leaching losses. Our study aimed to quantify nutrient leaching and nutrient retention efficiency in the soil after land-use conversion to smallholder rubber and oil palm plantations. In Jambi province, Indonesia, we selected two landscapes on highly weathered Acrisol soils that mainly differed in texture: loam and clay. Within each landscape, we compared two reference land uses: lowland forest and jungle rubber (defined as rubber trees interspersed in secondary forest) with two converted land uses, smallholder rubber and oil palm plantations. Within each landscape, the first three land uses were represented by four replicate sites and the oil palm by three sites, totaling to 30 sites. We measured leaching losses using suction cup lysimeters, sampled biweekly to monthly from February to December 2013. Forests and jungle rubber had low solute concentrations in drainage water, suggesting low internal inputs of rock-derived nutrients and efficient internal cycling of nutrients. These reference land uses on the clay Acrisol soils had lower leaching of dissolved N and base cations (P = 0.01–0.06) and higher N and base cation retention efficiency (P 

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