scholarly journals Embedded imperatives in Semitic, Germanic, and other languages

2021 ◽  
Vol 11 (2) ◽  
pp. 75-86
Author(s):  
Lutz Edzard
Keyword(s):  
Formal Analysis ◽  
Descriptive Analysis ◽  
Direct Speech ◽  
Subordinate Clauses ◽  
Pronominal System ◽  
Germanic Languages

Several Semitic and Germanic languages, just as languages belonging to other language families (Slovenian, Korean), embed imperatives and thus use direct speech in syntactical context, where most other languages would use subordinate clauses. This kind of embedding can entail “shifting indexicals” and “imposters”, i.e. the reference to one and the same person with different persons in the verbal and pronominal system, even within one and the same phrase. In this paper, departing from the Germanic and other data presented so far in this context, I attempt a descriptive analysis of this phenomenon focusing on Semitic, with only hints to elements of a formal analysis.

Mood

2017 ◽  
Author(s):  
Paul Portner
Keyword(s):  
Formal Analysis ◽  
Pragmatic Theory ◽  
Subordinate Clauses ◽  
Pragmatic Function ◽  
Verbal Mood ◽  
The Way

The category of mood is widely used in the description of languages and the formal analysis of their grammatical properties. It typically refers to features of a sentence’s form (or a class of sentences which share such features), either individual morphemes or grammatical patterns, which reflect how the sentence contributes to the modal meaning of a larger phrase or which indicates the type of fundamental pragmatic function it has in conversation. The first subtype, verbal mood, includes the categories of indicative and subjunctive subordinate clauses; the second sentence mood, encompasses declaratives, interrogatives, and imperatives. This work presents the essential background for understanding semantic theories of mood and discusses the most significant theories of both types. It evaluates those theories, compares them, draws connections between seemingly disparate approaches, and with the goal of drawing out their most important insights, it formalizes some of the literature’s most important ideas in new ways. Ultimately, this work shows that there are important connections between verbal mood and sentence mood which point the way towards a more general understanding of how mood works and its relation to other topics in linguistics, and it outlines the type of semantic and pragmatic theory which will make it possible to explain these relations.

Old and Middle Japanese

2017 ◽  
Author(s):  
Bjarke Frellesvig
Keyword(s):  
Japanese Language ◽  
Complex Predicates ◽  
Important Distinction ◽  
Differential Object Marking ◽  
Subordinate Clauses ◽  
System P ◽  
Old Japanese ◽  
History Of ◽  
Object Marking ◽  
Pronominal System

Old and Middle Japanese are the pre-modern periods of the attested history of the Japanese language. Old Japanese (OJ) is largely the language of the 8th century, with a modest, but still significant number of written sources, most of which is poetry. Middle Japanese is divided into two distinct periods, Early Middle Japanese (EMJ, 800–1200) and Late Middle Japanese (LMJ, 1200–1600). EMJ saw most of the significant sound changes that took place in the language, as well as profound influence from Chinese, whereas most grammatical changes took place between the end of EMJ and the end of LMJ. By the end of LMJ, the Japanese language had reached a form that is not significantly different from present-day Japanese. OJ phonology was simple, both in terms of phoneme inventory and syllable structure, with a total of only 88 different syllables. In EMJ, the language became quantity sensitive, with the introduction of a long versus short syllables. OJ and EMJ had obligatory verb inflection for a number of modal and syntactic categories (including an important distinction between a conclusive and an (ad)nominalizing form), whereas the expression of aspect and tense was optional. Through late EMJ and LMJ this system changed completely to one without nominalizing inflection, but obligatory inflection for tense. The morphological pronominal system of OJ was lost in EMJ, which developed a range of lexical and lexically based terms of speaker and hearer reference. OJ had a two-way (speaker–nonspeaker) demonstrative system, which in EMJ was replaced by a three-way (proximal–mesial–distal) system. OJ had a system of differential object marking, based on specificity, as well as a word order rule that placed accusative marked objects before most subjects; both of these features were lost in EMJ. OJ and EMJ had genitive subject marking in subordinate clauses and in focused, interrogative and exclamative main clauses, but no case marking of subjects in declarative, optative, or imperative main clauses and no nominative marker. Through LMJ genitive subject marking was gradually circumscribed and a nominative case particle was acquired which could mark subjects in all types of clauses. OJ had a well-developed system of complex predicates, in which two verbs jointly formed the predicate of a single clause, which is the source of the LMJ and NJ (Modern Japanese) verb–verb compound complex predicates. OJ and EMJ also had mono-clausal focus constructions that functionally were similar to clefts in English; these constructions were lost in LMJ.

Judges’ deviations from norm-based direct speech in court

Interpreting ◽  
2008 ◽  
Vol 10 (1) ◽  
pp. 99-127 ◽  
Author(s):  
Tina Paulsen Christensen
Keyword(s):  
Participant Observation ◽  
Descriptive Analysis ◽  
Research Participant ◽  
Primary Objective ◽  
Small Scale ◽  
Direct Speech ◽  
Legal Norms ◽  
Indirect Speech ◽  
Speech Styles ◽  
Court Proceedings

This article presents a small-scale empirical study of legal discourse which focuses on the use of direct and indirect speech in Danish interpreter-mediated court proceedings. The study analyses the practices of three Danish judges in three different interpreted proceedings. The primary objective of the paper is to study the potential correlation between the use of direct and indirect speech styles and certain stages of court proceedings. These stages are defined and classified in terms of explicit prescriptive legal norms ascribable to the participants in Danish court proceedings, acting in accordance with a predefined style of interaction (direct speech). In addition, the study investigates whether what the judges say about their speech style corresponds with their actual language use in court. The techniques combined in the study are survey research, participant observation and descriptive analysis based on transcriptions of authentic data from three audio-recorded criminal cases conducted by district courts in Denmark.

scholarly journals NULL SUBJECTS IN OLD GERMANIC LANGUAGES

2019 ◽  
pp. 36-40
Author(s):  
H. H. Zinchenko
Keyword(s):  
Null Subjects ◽  
Old Icelandic ◽  
Second Person ◽  
Verbal Inflection ◽  
Verb Agreement ◽  
Subordinate Clauses ◽  
Person Reference ◽  
Third Person ◽  
Distinct Features ◽  
Germanic Languages

The article outlines the approaches to defining universal subjecthood properties from cognitive, generative, and functional perspectives. Three types of languages are distinguished according to the type of null subjects they allow – pro-drop, topic-drop, and discourse (radical)-drop. It is shown that phonologically unrealized subjects occur in Old Germanic languages and Modern Germanic vernaculars. Old Germanic null subjects are analyzed as for their syntactic distribution, relation to verb agreement, and person reference, which helps identify their similar and distinct features. The distribution of null subjects does not seem to depend on the richnessF of verbal inflection; third-person null subjects are registered more frequently than first- or second-person ones. Null subjects in main clauses are more numerous than those in subordinate clauses. Old Icelandic, demonstrates a higher frequency of unexpressed subjects in subordinate clauses.

scholarly journals AN ANALYSIS OF DIRECT AND INDIRECT SPEECH ACTS PERFORMED BY MAIN CHARACTER IN THE MOVIE REVENANT SCRIPT

2018 ◽  
Vol 2 (1) ◽  
pp. 59-67
Author(s):  
Fyngky Oktadistio ◽  
Mazrul Aziz ◽  
Zahrida .
Keyword(s):  
Speech Acts ◽  
Speech Act ◽  
Descriptive Analysis ◽  
Main Character ◽  
Direct Speech ◽  
Dominant Type ◽  
Indirect Speech ◽  
Indirect Speech Acts ◽  
Movie Script ◽  
Indirect Speech Act

This Research Entitled “An Analysis Of Direct And Indirect Speech Acts Performed By Main Character In The Movie Revenant Script”. This research was a descriptive analysis that discusses direct and indirect speech acts in movie script entitled ‘The Revenant.’ In analyzing the script, there was used theory by Yule (1996).The data in this research based on main characters’ utterances. The purpose of this analysis was to find out the types, and functions of speech act whether it is direct speech act or indirect speech act in the movie script entitled ‘The Revenant.’ From the analysis, it was found that both direct speech acts and indirect speech acts are used by main characters in this movie. The most dominant type of speech act used in the movie script was direct speech act (13 utterances) and then followed by indirect speech act (9 utterances). The direct speech act was classified again into declarative type (2 utterances) imperative type (5 utterances) and interrogative type (6 utterances). Indirect speech acts were also classified again into declarative type (8 utterances) and Interrogative (1 utterance). For the functions, direct speech acts are classified into the statement (2 utterances), order/request (5 utterances), and the last function of the question (6 utterances). Indirect speech act also classified into question (9 utterances), and no functions of statement and order. Based on the result, the researcher found that Felicity Conditions and genre were the factors affected main characters in producing direct speech acts more than indirect speech acts.

scholarly journals A native origin for Present-Day English they, their, them

Diachronica ◽  
2018 ◽  
Vol 35 (2) ◽  
pp. 165-209 ◽  
Author(s):  
Marcelle Cole
Keyword(s):  
Middle English ◽  
Old English ◽  
Personal Pronoun ◽  
Personal Pronouns ◽  
Person Plural ◽  
Textual Evidence ◽  
The North ◽  
Third Person ◽  
Pronominal System ◽  
Germanic Languages

Abstract It is commonly held that Present-Day English they, their, them are not descended from Old English but derive from the Old Norse third-person plural pronouns þeir, þeira, þeim. This paper argues that the early northern English orthographic and distributional textual evidence agrees with an internal trajectory for the ‘þ-’ type personal pronouns in the North and indicates an origin in the Old English demonstratives þā, þāra, þām. The Northern Middle English third-person plural pronominal system was the result of the reanalysis from demonstrative to personal pronoun that is common cross-linguistically in Germanic and non-Germanic languages alike.

scholarly journals Brand selfies: consumer experiences and marketplace conversations

2016 ◽  
Vol 50 (9/10) ◽  
pp. 1814-1834 ◽  
Author(s):  
Caterina Presi ◽  
Natalia Maehle ◽  
Ingeborg Astrid Kleppe
Keyword(s):  
Social Media ◽  
Brand Image ◽  
Formal Analysis ◽  
Descriptive Analysis ◽  
Response Analysis ◽  
Content Type ◽  
Brand Meaning ◽  
Unique Material ◽  
Social Media Platforms ◽  
Key Steps

Purpose The purpose of this paper is to explore the brand selfie phenomenon on two different levels. On the level of consumer brand experiences, the focus is on how brand selfie practices add new features to brand experiences and consumer–brand relationships. On the level of marketplace brand image, the authors explore how consumers contribute to marketplace conversations by posting brand selfies in social media and how this practice shapes and changes brand image. Design/methodology/approach The researchers conducted an extensive search on different social media platforms to collect various types of brand selfies. The authors approach brand selfies as rich visual texts and their analysis comprises four key steps: descriptive analysis, response analysis, formal analysis and polytextual thematic analysis. Findings On the level of consumer brand experiences, the findings illuminate how different types of brand selfies extend the brand experience in space and time and transfer it into the hybrid space of the consumer-defined social networks. On the level of marketplace brand image, it is illustrated how brand selfies contribute to the process of co-creating brand meaning in the social media. Originality/value The study proposes a typology of brand selfie assemblages showing how consumers contribute to the visual production and consumption of brand meanings. The brand selfie is a unique material and expressive reality enabling us to theorise new perspectives on how consumers consume brands and how aggregates of brand selfie production and dissemination affect marketplace dynamics.

scholarly journals Environmental Protection as an Obstacle to Free Movement of Goods: Realist Jurisprudence in Articles 28 and 30 of the e.c. Treaty

2008 ◽  
Vol 27 (1) ◽  
Author(s):  
Eric Engle
Keyword(s):  
Environmental Protection ◽  
Free Trade ◽  
Formal Analysis ◽  
Descriptive Analysis ◽  
Case Law ◽  
Free Movement ◽  
Environmental Standards ◽  
Legal Realism ◽  
Legal Power ◽  
Free Movement Of Goods

Free trade and environmental protection are two norms that sometimes collide. The resolution of colliding norms can occur either using a formalist “descriptive” analysis, or using a “prescriptive” approach of legal realism. It may seem intuitive to imagine realism and formalism as mutually exclusive. However, this dualism is not entirely accurate. The realist-formalist dualism is unsatisfying because legal realism critiques the capricious nature of formalism only to replace it with likewise capricious methods of legal decision-making. Further, courts sometimes act as realists and at other times as formalists. Finally, many methods of legal interpretation may be considered either “formalist” or “realist.” This paper examines the conflict between free trade and environmental protection in E.C. law. It uses Articles 28 and 30 of the E.C. Treaty as a foil with which to draw out the distinctions and limits of both realism and formalism. A formal analysis of Articles 28 and 30 of the E.C. Treaty reveals a series of cases that struggle first to define waste as wares and then to determine the limitations that the free movement of goods imposes on environmental standards and vice versa. However, this unsatisfying formal analysis is not the only possible interpretation of the case law arising out of Articles 28 and 30. An analysis based on legal realism is also possible but not entirely satisfying. This paper concludes that the realist-formalist dualism, though tenable, does not solve the problem of capricious legal power.

The comparative Phonetics of Dutch and its Dialects

1996 ◽  
Vol 111-112 ◽  
pp. 119-154
Author(s):  
Warren Shibles
Keyword(s):  
Philosophy Of Science ◽  
Descriptive Analysis ◽  
Precise Location ◽  
Language Teacher ◽  
Germanic Languages

Abstract The literature on Dutch phonetics reveals a controversy about certain vowels and consonants. Dictionaries typically do not give phonetics, or if they do, it is not standard IPA, but Dutch-IPA, a personal, or local symbolism. In addition, transcriptions differ. The effect is that the researcher must use questionable symbols and descriptions, and that the language teacher and learner are not provided with a reliable or accessible resource for pronunciation. These difficulties are met here by the attempt to give more careful descriptions of articulations, and consonants. Terms for articulation are standardized, and an extended IPA vowel chart is given to provide a better descriptive analysis than is presently available. A system is presented for the consistent and precise location of vowels. This extended IPA system is used as the basis of phonetic description, analysis and comparison. Emphasis is on the specific case or paradigm method of the philosophy of science so that numerous examples must of necessity be given. This contrasts with the usual article on phonology which provides the fewest number of examples required to support a general or universal hypothesis. This is one of the important differences between phonetics and phonology. These examples provide data for phonology, further research, comparative and contrastive phonetics, as well as to aid the language teacher or learner. In addition, a phonetic comparison is given between Dutch and the Germanic languages.

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