The influence of conifer forest canopy cover on the accuracy of two individual tree measurement algorithms using lidar data

Michael J Falkowski; Alistair M.S. Smith; Paul E Gessler; Andrew T Hudak; Lee A Vierling; Jeffrey S Evans

doi:10.5589/m08-055

Detecting Long-Term Urban Forest Cover Change and Impacts of Natural Disasters Using High-Resolution Aerial Images and LiDAR Data

Remote Sensing ◽

10.3390/rs12111820 ◽

2020 ◽

Vol 12 (11) ◽

pp. 1820

Author(s):

Raoul Blackman ◽

Fei Yuan

Keyword(s):

Remote Sensing ◽

Ecosystem Services ◽

Forest Canopy ◽

High Spatial Resolution ◽

Urban Forest ◽

Urban Canopy ◽

Canopy Cover ◽

Random Point ◽

Aerial Images ◽

Lidar Data

Urban forests provide ecosystem services; tree canopy cover is the basic quantification of ecosystem services. Ground assessment of the urban forest is limited; with continued refinement, remote sensing can become an essential tool for analyzing the urban forest. This study addresses three research questions that are essential for urban forest management using remote sensing: (1) Can object-based image analysis (OBIA) and non-image classification methods (such as random point-based evaluation) accurately determine urban canopy coverage using high-spatial-resolution aerial images? (2) Is it possible to assess the impact of natural disturbances in addition to other factors (such as urban development) on urban canopy changes in the classification map created by OBIA? (3) How can we use Light Detection and Ranging (LiDAR) data and technology to extract urban canopy metrics accurately and effectively? The urban forest canopy area and location within the City of St Peter, Minnesota (MN) boundary between 1938 and 2019 were defined using both OBIA and random-point-based methods with high-spatial-resolution aerial images. Impacts of natural disasters, such as the 1998 tornado and tree diseases, on the urban canopy cover area, were examined. Finally, LiDAR data was used to determine the height, density, crown area, diameter, and volume of the urban forest canopy. Both OBIA and random-point methods gave accurate results of canopy coverages. The OBIA is relatively more time-consuming and requires specialist knowledge, whereas the random-point-based method only shows the total coverage of the classes without locational information. Canopy change caused by tornado was discernible in the canopy OBIA-based classification maps while the change due to diseases was undetectable. To accurately exact urban canopy metrics besides tree locations, dense LiDAR point cloud data collected at the leaf-on season as well as algorithms or software developed specifically for urban forest analysis using LiDAR data are needed.

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Connecting Forestry Learning Objectives to Urban Forest Types

Journal of Forestry ◽

10.1093/jofore/fvab053 ◽

2021 ◽

Author(s):

Kathleen Coupland ◽

Juliana Magalhães ◽

Verena C Griess

Keyword(s):

Undergraduate Students ◽

Forest Canopy ◽

Urban Forest ◽

Canopy Cover ◽

Urban Forests ◽

Learning Objectives ◽

Educational Opportunities ◽

Walking Distance ◽

Forest Types ◽

Individual Tree

Abstract Applied educational opportunities in forestry undergraduate curricula are essential for a complete postsecondary degree program. Walking distance to local urban forests present a way to teach forestry students in applied settings, while reducing the time, cost, and travel logistics. A case study at a Canadian university (University of British Columbia) was used to connect urban forest canopy cover to forestry learning objectives and walking time to the main teaching building. Individual tree canopies were identified with light detection and ranging data and aggregated to 0.05 ha grid sections. Using canopy cover and forest arrangement, the urban forest was classified into closed, open, small, sparse, or non- forest classifications. Forestry learning objectives were matched with each forest classification in conjunction with walkability to identify critical local location for forestry education. Results identified key areas suitable for teaching forestry and for linking forestry educational values with easily accessible high value locations. Study Implications: Applied educational opportunities for undergraduate forestry students are critical for ensuring hands-on, real world experiences and essential in postsecondary forestry degrees. Local urban forests present an opportunity to allow students access to these experiences regularly. Connecting forestry learning objectives with local urban forest types allowed for the identification of key, high-value learning locations. The information and methodology from this research provide insight into explicitly classifying areas for forestry educational purposes with the goal of promoting outdoor applied educational opportunities for forestry undergraduate students.

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Assessment of Individual Tree Detection and Canopy Cover Estimation using Unmanned Aerial Vehicle based Light Detection and Ranging (UAV-LiDAR) Data in Planted Forests

Remote Sensing ◽

10.3390/rs11080908 ◽

2019 ◽

Vol 11 (8) ◽

pp. 908 ◽

Cited By ~ 18

Author(s):

Xiangqian Wu ◽

Xin Shen ◽

Lin Cao ◽

Guibin Wang ◽

Fuliang Cao

Keyword(s):

Unmanned Aerial Vehicle ◽

Forest Inventory ◽

Canopy Cover ◽

Light Detection And Ranging ◽

Estimation Methods ◽

Lidar Data ◽

Tree Crown ◽

Polynomial Fitting ◽

Individual Tree ◽

Aerial Vehicle

Canopy cover is a key forest structural parameter that is commonly used in forest inventory, sustainable forest management and maintaining ecosystem services. Recently, much attention has been paid to the use of unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV)-based light detection and ranging (LiDAR) due to the flexibility, convenience, and high point density advantages of this method. In this study, we used UAV-based LiDAR data with individual tree segmentation-based method (ITSM), canopy height model-based method (CHMM), and a statistical model method (SMM) with LiDAR metrics to estimate the canopy cover of a pure ginkgo (Ginkgo biloba L.) planted forest in China. First, each individual tree within the plot was segmented using watershed, polynomial fitting, individual tree crown segmentation (ITCS) and point cloud segmentation (PCS) algorithms, and the canopy cover was calculated using the segmented individual tree crown (ITSM). Second, the CHM-based method, which was based on the CHM height threshold, was used to estimate the canopy cover in each plot. Third, the canopy cover was estimated using the multiple linear regression (MLR) model and assessed by leave-one-out cross validation. Finally, the performance of three canopy cover estimation methods was evaluated and compared by the canopy cover from the field data. The results demonstrated that, the PCS algorithm had the highest accuracy (F = 0.83), followed by the ITCS (F = 0.82) and watershed (F = 0.79) algorithms; the polynomial fitting algorithm had the lowest accuracy (F = 0.77). In the sensitivity analysis, the three CHM-based algorithms (i.e., watershed, polynomial fitting and ITCS) had the highest accuracy when the CHM resolution was 0.5 m, and the PCS algorithm had the highest accuracy when the distance threshold was 2 m. In addition, the ITSM had the highest accuracy in estimation of canopy cover (R2 = 0.92, rRMSE = 3.5%), followed by the CHMM (R2 = 0.94, rRMSE = 5.4%), and the SMM had a relative low accuracy (R2 = 0.80, rRMSE = 5.9%).The UAV-based LiDAR data can be effectively used in individual tree crown segmentation and canopy cover estimation at plot-level, and CC estimation methods can provide references for forest inventory, sustainable management and ecosystem assessment.

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Application of UAV Photogrammetry with LiDAR Data to Facilitate the Estimation of Tree Locations and DBH Values for High-Value Timber Species in Northern Japanese Mixed-Wood Forests

Remote Sensing ◽

10.3390/rs12172865 ◽

2020 ◽

Vol 12 (17) ◽

pp. 2865

Author(s):

Kyaw Thu Moe ◽

Toshiaki Owari ◽

Naoyuki Furuya ◽

Takuya Hiroshima ◽

Junko Morimoto

Keyword(s):

Forest Management ◽

Forest Canopy ◽

3D Structure ◽

Three Dimensional ◽

Lidar Data ◽

Timber Species ◽

Individual Tree ◽

Aerial Photogrammetry ◽

Broadleaf Species ◽

The Individual

High-value timber species play an important economic role in forest management. The individual tree information for such species is necessary for practical forest management and for conservation purposes. Digital aerial photogrammetry derived from an unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV-DAP) can provide fine spatial and spectral information, as well as information on the three-dimensional (3D) structure of a forest canopy. Light detection and ranging (LiDAR) data enable area-wide 3D tree mapping and provide accurate forest floor terrain information. In this study, we evaluated the potential use of UAV-DAP and LiDAR data for the estimation of individual tree location and diameter at breast height (DBH) values of large-size high-value timber species in northern Japanese mixed-wood forests. We performed multiresolution segmentation of UAV-DAP orthophotographs to derive individual tree crown. We used object-based image analysis and random forest algorithm to classify the forest canopy into five categories: three high-value timber species, other broadleaf species, and conifer species. The UAV-DAP technique produced overall accuracy values of 73% and 63% for classification of the forest canopy in two forest management sub-compartments. In addition, we estimated individual tree DBH Values of high-value timber species through field survey, LiDAR, and UAV-DAP data. The results indicated that UAV-DAP can predict individual tree DBH Values, with comparable accuracy to DBH prediction using field and LiDAR data. The results of this study are useful for forest managers when searching for high-value timber trees and estimating tree size in large mixed-wood forests and can be applied in single-tree management systems for high-value timber species.

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Improving the estimation of canopy cover from UAV-LiDAR data using a pit-free CHM-based method

International Journal of Digital Earth ◽

10.1080/17538947.2021.1921862 ◽

2021 ◽

pp. 1-16

Author(s):

Shangshu Cai ◽

Wuming Zhang ◽

Shuangna Jin ◽

Jie Shao ◽

Linyuan Li ◽

...

Keyword(s):

Canopy Cover ◽

Lidar Data

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Development and Performance Evaluation of a Very Low-Cost UAV-Lidar System for Forestry Applications

Remote Sensing ◽

10.3390/rs13010077 ◽

2020 ◽

Vol 13 (1) ◽

pp. 77

Author(s):

Tianyu Hu ◽

Xiliang Sun ◽

Yanjun Su ◽

Hongcan Guan ◽

Qianhui Sun ◽

...

Keyword(s):

Forest Inventory ◽

Low Cost ◽

Canopy Cover ◽

Tree Height ◽

Flying Height ◽

Tree Level ◽

Forest Site ◽

Lidar System ◽

Individual Tree ◽

Gap Fraction

Accurate and repeated forest inventory data are critical to understand forest ecosystem processes and manage forest resources. In recent years, unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV)-borne light detection and ranging (lidar) systems have demonstrated effectiveness at deriving forest inventory attributes. However, their high cost has largely prevented them from being used in large-scale forest applications. Here, we developed a very low-cost UAV lidar system that integrates a recently emerged DJI Livox MID40 laser scanner (~$600 USD) and evaluated its capability in estimating both individual tree-level (i.e., tree height) and plot-level forest inventory attributes (i.e., canopy cover, gap fraction, and leaf area index (LAI)). Moreover, a comprehensive comparison was conducted between the developed DJI Livox system and four other UAV lidar systems equipped with high-end laser scanners (i.e., RIEGL VUX-1 UAV, RIEGL miniVUX-1 UAV, HESAI Pandar40, and Velodyne Puck LITE). Using these instruments, we surveyed a coniferous forest site and a broadleaved forest site, with tree densities ranging from 500 trees/ha to 3000 trees/ha, with 52 UAV flights at different flying height and speed combinations. The developed DJI Livox MID40 system effectively captured the upper canopy structure and terrain surface information at both forest sites. The estimated individual tree height was highly correlated with field measurements (coniferous site: R2 = 0.96, root mean squared error/RMSE = 0.59 m; broadleaved site: R2 = 0.70, RMSE = 1.63 m). The plot-level estimates of canopy cover, gap fraction, and LAI corresponded well with those derived from the high-end RIEGL VUX-1 UAV system but tended to have systematic biases in areas with medium to high canopy densities. Overall, the DJI Livox MID40 system performed comparably to the RIEGL miniVUX-1 UAV, HESAI Pandar40, and Velodyne Puck LITE systems in the coniferous site and to the Velodyne Puck LITE system in the broadleaved forest. Despite its apparent weaknesses of limited sensitivity to low-intensity returns and narrow field of view, we believe that the very low-cost system developed by this study can largely broaden the potential use of UAV lidar in forest inventory applications. This study also provides guidance for the selection of the appropriate UAV lidar system and flight specifications for forest research and management.

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Estimating Forest Canopy Cover by Multiscale Remote Sensing in Northeast Jiangxi, China

Land ◽

10.3390/land10040433 ◽

2021 ◽

Vol 10 (4) ◽

pp. 433

Author(s):

Xiaolan Huang ◽

Weicheng Wu ◽

Tingting Shen ◽

Lifeng Xie ◽

Yaozu Qin ◽

...

Keyword(s):

Remote Sensing ◽

Large Scale ◽

Forest Canopy ◽

Canopy Cover ◽

Google Earth ◽

Tree Canopy ◽

Landsat Data ◽

High Resolution Data ◽

Modis Ndvi ◽

Tree Canopy Cover

This research was focused on estimation of tree canopy cover (CC) by multiscale remote sensing in south China. The key aim is to establish the relationship between CC and woody NDVI (NDVIW) or to build a CC-NDVIW model taking northeast Jiangxi as an example. Based on field CC measurements, this research used Google Earth as a complementary source to measure CC. In total, 63 sample plots of CC were created, among which 45 were applied for modeling and the remaining 18 were employed for verification. In order to ascertain the ratio R of NDVIW to the satellite observed NDVI, a 20-year time-series MODIS NDVI dataset was utilized for decomposition to obtain the NDVIW component, and then the ratio R was calculated with the equation R = (NDVIW/NDVI) *100%, respectively, for forest (CC >60%), medium woodland (CC = 25–60%) and sparse woodland (CC 1–25%). Landsat TM and OLI images that had been orthorectified by the provider USGS were atmospherically corrected using the COST model and used to derive NDVIL. R was multiplied for the NDVIL image to extract the woody NDVI (NDVIWL) from Landsat data for each of these plots. The 45 plots of CC data were linearly fitted to the NDVIWL, and a model with CC = 103.843 NDVIW + 6.157 (R2 = 0.881) was obtained. This equation was applied to predict CC at the 18 verification plots and a good agreement was found (R2 = 0.897). This validated CC-NDVIW model was further applied to the woody NDVI of forest, medium woodland and sparse woodland derived from Landsat data for regional CC estimation. An independent group of 24 measured plots was utilized for validation of the results, and an accuracy of 83.0% was obtained. Thence, the developed model has high predictivity and is suitable for large-scale estimation of CC using high-resolution data.

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Adjudicating Perspectives on Forest Structure: How Do Airborne, Terrestrial, and Mobile Lidar-Derived Estimates Compare?

Remote Sensing ◽

10.3390/rs13122297 ◽

2021 ◽

Vol 13 (12) ◽

pp. 2297

Author(s):

Jonathon J. Donager ◽

Andrew J. Sánchez Meador ◽

Ryan C. Blackburn

Keyword(s):

Ponderosa Pine ◽

Laser Scanning ◽

Canopy Cover ◽

Basal Area ◽

Tree Height ◽

Absolute Error ◽

Forest Monitoring ◽

Individual Tree ◽

Structural Configurations ◽

Individual Trees

Applications of lidar in ecosystem conservation and management continue to expand as technology has rapidly evolved. An accounting of relative accuracy and errors among lidar platforms within a range of forest types and structural configurations was needed. Within a ponderosa pine forest in northern Arizona, we compare vegetation attributes at the tree-, plot-, and stand-scales derived from three lidar platforms: fixed-wing airborne (ALS), fixed-location terrestrial (TLS), and hand-held mobile laser scanning (MLS). We present a methodology to segment individual trees from TLS and MLS datasets, incorporating eigen-value and density metrics to locate trees, then assigning point returns to trees using a graph-theory shortest-path approach. Overall, we found MLS consistently provided more accurate structural metrics at the tree- (e.g., mean absolute error for DBH in cm was 4.8, 5.0, and 9.1 for MLS, TLS and ALS, respectively) and plot-scale (e.g., R2 for field observed and lidar-derived basal area, m2 ha−1, was 0.986, 0.974, and 0.851 for MLS, TLS, and ALS, respectively) as compared to ALS and TLS. While TLS data produced estimates similar to MLS, attributes derived from TLS often underpredicted structural values due to occlusion. Additionally, ALS data provided accurate estimates of tree height for larger trees, yet consistently missed and underpredicted small trees (≤35 cm). MLS produced accurate estimates of canopy cover and landscape metrics up to 50 m from plot center. TLS tended to underpredict both canopy cover and patch metrics with constant bias due to occlusion. Taking full advantage of minimal occlusion effects, MLS data consistently provided the best individual tree and plot-based metrics, with ALS providing the best estimates for volume, biomass, and canopy cover. Overall, we found MLS data logistically simple, quickly acquirable, and accurate for small area inventories, assessments, and monitoring activities. We suggest further work exploring the active use of MLS for forest monitoring and inventory.

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