scholarly journals Do platelet mediators and coagulation factors affect the formation of neutrophil extracellular traps?

Author(s):  
Iraklis C. Moschonas ◽  
Styliani Papadaki ◽  
Sofia Sidiropoulou ◽  
Alexandros D. Tselepis

Aim: To investigate the effect of factor Xa (FXa), thrombin and platelets, under activation or resting conditions, on neutrophil extracellular traps (NETs) formation (NETosis). Materials and Methods: Neutrophils, isolated from apparently healthy volunteers, were challenged with 25-50 nM FXa, 0.2-8 U/mL thrombin, 5-100 μM adenosine diphosphate (ADP), 0.1-0.5 mM arachidonic acid (AA), 5-15 μg/mL collagen, 100 μM protease-activated receptor (PAR)-4 activating peptide, 10-100 μM PAR-2 activating peptide or 25-100 nM phorbol 12-myristate 13-acetate (PMA). Moreover, neutrophils were challenged with platelet-rich plasma (PRP), activated with ADP (at a concentration of either 20 μM, in an aggregometer, or of 50 μM, in situ). Neutrophils were incubated for 3.5 h at 37οC and 5% CO2 and an immunofluorescence protocol followed, in order to stain neutrophils and NETs for myeloperoxidase and DNA. Finally, NETs and neutrophils were microscopically visualized and the percentage of NET-releasing neutrophils of each of the above experimental conditions was evaluated. Results and Conclusion: Among the agonists studied, only PMA and AA, induced robust NETosis, at a threshold concentration of 25 nM and 0.25 mM, respectively. Furthermore, platelets pre-activated with ADP, but not resting platelets induce the formation of NETs, a phenomenon that is also observed when platelets were activated with ADP in situ, in the presence of neutrophils. The present results provide an additional mechanism through which platelets contribute to various pathophysiological conditions in which NETs are implicated, such as inflammation and thrombosis. The whole spectrum of platelet mediators that are implicated in NETosis needs to be further investigated.

2020 ◽  
Vol 319 (4) ◽  
pp. L661-L669
Author(s):  
Samir Gautam ◽  
Yannick Stahl ◽  
Grant M. Young ◽  
Rebecca Howell ◽  
Avi J. Cohen ◽  
...  

The past two decades have witnessed a resurgence in neutrophil research, inspired in part by the discovery of neutrophil extracellular traps (NETs) and their myriad roles in health and disease. Within the lung, dysregulation of neutrophils and NETosis have been linked to an array of diseases including pneumonia, cystic fibrosis, acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS), chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), and severe asthma. However, our understanding of pathologic neutrophil responses in the lung remains incomplete. Two methodologic issues have contributed to this gap: first, an emphasis on studying neutrophils from blood rather than the lung and second, the technical difficulties of interrogating neutrophil responses in mice, which has largely restricted basic murine research to specialized laboratories. To address these limitations, we have developed a suite of techniques for studying neutrophil effector functions specifically in the mouse lung. These include ex vivo assays for phagocytosis and NETosis using bronchoalveolar neutrophils and in situ evaluation of NETosis in a murine model of pneumonia. Throughout, we have prioritized technical ease and robust, quantitative readouts. We hope these assays will help to standardize research on lung neutrophils and improve accessibility to this burgeoning field.


Author(s):  
Ana Blasco ◽  
María José Coronado ◽  
Paula Vela ◽  
Paloma Martin ◽  
Jorge Solano ◽  
...  

Aims: The mechanisms of coronary thrombosis can influence prognosis after STEMI and allow for different treatment groups to be identified; an association between neutrophil extracellular traps (NETs) and unfavorable clinical outcomes has been suggested. Our aim was to determine the role played by NETs in coronary thrombosis and their influence on prognosis. The role of other histological features in prognosis and the association between NETs and bacteria in the coronary thrombi were also explored. Methods and Results: We studied 406 patients with STEMI in which coronary thrombi were consecutively obtained by aspiration during angioplasty between 2012 and 2018. Analysis of NETs in paraffin-embedded thrombi was based on the colocalization of specific NET components by means of confocal microscopy. Immunohistochemistry stains were used to identify plaque fragments. Fluorescence in situ hybridization was used to detect bacteria. NETs were detected in 51% of the thrombi [NET density, median (IQR): 25% (17–38%)]. The median follow-up was 47 months (95% CI 43-51); 105 (26%) patients experienced major adverse cardiac events (MACE). A significant association was found between the presence of NETs in coronary aspirates and the occurrence of MACE in the first 30 days after infarction (HR 2.82; 95% CI 1.26–6.35, p=.012), mainly due to cardiac deaths and stent thrombosis. Conclusions: The presence of NETs in coronary thrombi was associated with a worse prognosis soon after STEMI. In some patients, NETs could be a treatment target and a feasible way to prevent reinfarction.


2019 ◽  
Vol 10 ◽  
Author(s):  
Shane V. van Breda ◽  
Lenka Vokalova ◽  
Claire Neugebauer ◽  
Simona W. Rossi ◽  
Sinuhe Hahn ◽  
...  

Blood ◽  
2005 ◽  
Vol 106 (11) ◽  
pp. 1645-1645
Author(s):  
Jialan Shi ◽  
Steven W. Pipe ◽  
Jan T. Rasmussen ◽  
Christian W. Heegaard ◽  
Gary E. Gilbert

Abstract Thrombin-stimulated platelets support activity of phosphatidylserine (PS)-dependent blood coagulation reactions. However, only 2–6% of stimulated platelets expose sufficient PS to bind annexin V, leading to the supposition that procoagulant reactions are localized to the annexin V positive platelets and to microparticles shed by platelets. We hypothesized that thrombin-stimulated platelets expose sufficient PS to support the prothrombinase and factor Xase complexes but insufficient to meet the threshold for annexin V binding. We evaluated lactadherin, a PS-binding milk protein, as a reagent to detect platelet PS exposure. Thrombin or TRAP-treated platelets bound lactadherin with 3200 ± 700 sites/plt, but did not bind annexin V, as detected by flow cytometry. To confirm that lactadherin binding truly reported PS exposure, we performed activation experiments upon platelets loaded with 1-Palmitoyl-2- [6-[(7-nitro-2-1,3-benzoxadiazol-4-yl)amino]hexanoyl]-sn-Glycero-3-Phospho-L-Serine (NBD-PS). Stimulation of platelets with 10 μM TRAP led to 8 ± 2 % PS exposure vs > 90% PS exposure for 10 μM A23187. PS exposure was maximal within 1 min of exposure to TRAP and was reversible with >70% of exposed PS re-internalized within 30 min. In situ platelet fibrin deposition was monitored utilizing a novel flow cytometry assay. Platelet rich plasma was recalcified and supplemented with 50 pM factor Xa, 100 μM GPRP. Platelet-bound fibrin, lactadherin and annexin V binding sites were measured at time intervals. Fibrin accumulated on lactadherin + platelets at a rate greater than or equal to the rate on platelet microparticles or annexin V + platelets. Lactadherin inhibited > 98% of prothrombinase and factor Xase activity on platelets while annexin V inhibition reached a plateau of ~ 80%. The localization and importance of regulated PS exposure in vivo was evaluated in mouse models. Anesthetized mice were injected intravenously with 1 μg of lactadherin and 1 μg annexin V. Three minutes after FeCl3 injury of exposed mesentery, mice were perfused with fixative. Immunohistochemistry showed veins edged with fibrin and decorated with platelets. Lactadherin co-localized with CD41+ platelets along the vascular wall but was less intense on platelets lodged within fibrin aggregates that extended into the vessel lumen and did not stain platelets in sequestered blood. Annexin V stained only scattered platelets and endothelial cells and did not correlate well to sites of fibrin deposition. To evaluate the hemostatic importance of platelet PS, 10 μg of lactadherin was injected intravenously prior to tail snip; bleeding volumes increased from 33 ± 29 μl to 128 ± 39 μl, n experimental = 8. Rose bengal/laser-induced carotid thrombosis delayed from 34 ± 9 min to 80 ± 20 min, n = 10 after 8–21 μg lactadherin. Four treated animals did not develop a thrombosis. In summary, use of lactadherin as a PS probe has revealed that the capacity for regulated PS exposure, at levels below the annexin V binding threshold, is a general platelet property and that low level PS exposure is sufficient to support thrombin and fibrin generation in vitro and in vivo. These results have implications about the mechanism through which PS exposure is regulated as well as for the potential value of PS exposure as a diagnostic or therapeutic target.


Cells ◽  
2022 ◽  
Vol 11 (2) ◽  
pp. 191
Author(s):  
Apurwa Singhal ◽  
Shubhi Yadav ◽  
Tulika Chandra ◽  
Shrikant R. Mulay ◽  
Anil Nilkanth Gaikwad ◽  
...  

Neutrophil extracellular traps (NETs) are associated with multiple disease pathologies including sepsis, asthma, rheumatoid arthritis, cancer, systemic lupus erythematosus, acute respiratory distress syndrome, and COVID-19. NETs, being a disintegrated death form, suffered inconsistency in their identification, nomenclature, and quantifications that hindered therapeutic approaches using NETs as a target. Multiple strategies including microscopy, ELISA, immunoblotting, flow cytometry, and image-stream-based methods have exhibited drawbacks such as being subjective, non-specific, error-prone, and not being high throughput, and thus demand the development of innovative and efficient approaches for their analyses. Here, we established an imaging and computational algorithm using high content screening (HCS)—cellomics platform that aid in easy, rapid, and specific detection as well as analyses of NETs. This method employed membrane-permeable and impermeable DNA dyes in situ to identify NET-forming cells. Automated algorithm-driven single-cell analysis of change in nuclear morphology, increase in nuclear area, and change in intensities provided precise detection of NET-forming cells and eliminated user bias with other cell death modalities. Further combination with Annexin V staining in situ detected specific death pathway, e.g., apoptosis, and thus, discriminated between NETs, apoptosis, and necrosis. Our approach does not utilize fixation and permeabilization steps that disturb NETs, and thus, allows the time-dependent monitoring of NETs. Together, this specific imaging-based high throughput method for NETs analyses may provide a good platform for the discovery of potential inhibitors of NET formation and/or agents to modulate neutrophil death, e.g., NETosis-apoptosis switch, as an alternative strategy to enhance the resolution of inflammation.


2020 ◽  
Vol 245 (15) ◽  
pp. 1376-1384
Author(s):  
Mostafa N Mostafa ◽  
Mahmoud Osama

Cardiovascular disease is the leading cause of mortality worldwide. Atherosclerosis constitutes most cardiovascular disease etiologies. Atherosclerosis is a chronic inflammatory and lipid-driven disease affecting the intima of blood vessels, resulting in an increase in its thickness and, therefore, narrowing of the arterial lumen. Many blood and immune cells have been shown to be implicated in atherosclerosis pathophysiology. Neutrophils are among those cells with their novel function of forming neutrophil extracellular traps. Neutrophil extracellular traps are mesh-like structures formed and released on activation of neutrophils. These structures consist of decondensed chromatin, histones, and other components, including nuclear and cellular proteins, cytoskeleton, proteases, and azurophilic granules. Neutrophil extracellular traps contain these elements and hold other circulating elements in the blood, such as tissue factor, fibrin, and other coagulation factors. Neutrophil extracellular traps are also implicated in the pathogenesis of atherothrombosis, which evolves as a consequence of atherosclerosis. In this review, we aim to demonstrate the process of neutrophil extracellular traps formation, release, and interaction with other blood cells, meaning it could be possible to use neutrophil extracellular traps as a therapeutic target in deceleration of atherosclerosis progression. Impact statement Fatal consequences of atherosclerosis and atherothrombosis give research in this field great importance. This review provides recent information about the implications of neutrophils in the pathophysiology of atherosclerosis and atherothrombosis via formation and release of neutrophil extracellular traps (NETs), thereby enhancing our understanding on how the process of atherosclerosis develops and how its consequences occur. Information provided in this review suggests NETs as a new therapeutic target and a rich point for research. This review gives answers to questions about the mechanisms of atherosclerosis and atherothrombosis progression through studying the implications of NETs in these processes.


2020 ◽  
Author(s):  
Bo Zhang ◽  
Xiao-Xiong Zhao ◽  
Yuan Lin ◽  
Tong Chen ◽  
Ren Shi-Xiang

Abstract Growing experimental evidence shows that the neutrophil extracellular traps (NETs) plays vital contribution in rheumatoid arthritis (RA). Selenium (Se) and Se nanoparticles (SeNPs) known to modulate RA-induced pathogenesis through antioxidant gene modulation. In the present study we have inferred that SeNPs supplementation effectively controls NETs formation, which in turn could curtail RA-induced inflammatory response.Neutrophils obtained from different experimental conditions were used to evaluate the in vitro NETs formation and inhibition of through SeNPs supplementation. Increased oxidative stress, decreased antioxidant enzyme activities and increased inflammatory cytokines were observed in neutrophils of RA, whereas SeNPs treatment attenuate it. Neutrophils obtained from control and SeNPs supplemented groups do not have statistically significant Se level between the groups, on the other hand reduced the oxidative stress. Neutrophils of RA forms more spontaneous NETs in vitro culture than that of control and SeNPs treated neutrophils. Neutrophils obtained from RA rats are more inclined for external NETs inducing agent such as lipopolysaccharides and phorbol 12-myristate 13-acetate, when compared with SeNPs treated and control neutrophils. On the other hand in vitro pre-treatment of neutrophils with SeNPs before exposing to NETs inducing substances, indicate the anti-NETs forming property of SeNPs. This effect could be mediated through reduction in major inflammatory mediators namely TNF-α, IL-17 and IL-6. This findings confirms that SeNPs could act as effective NETs formation blocking agent. Our present and previous observation conclude that SeNPs, could serve as an effective anti-arthritic agent warranting human study. Furthermore, this study also throws light on the new information such as SeNPs which could be used as therapeutics agent, where NETs is major pathogenic factor.


2016 ◽  
Vol 115 (03) ◽  
pp. 591-599 ◽  
Author(s):  
John Hogwood ◽  
Elaine Gray ◽  
Erzsébet Komorowicz ◽  
Imre Varjú ◽  
Zoltán Varga ◽  
...  

SummaryNeutrophil extracellular traps (NETs) composed primarily of DNA and histones are a link between infection, inflammation and coagulation. NETs promote coagulation and approaches to destabilise NETs have been explored to reduce thrombosis and treat sepsis. Heparinoids bind histones and we report quantitative studies in plasma and purified systems to better understand physiological consequences. Unfractionated heparin (UFH) was investigated by activated partial thromboplastin time (APTT) and alongside low-molecular-weight heparins (LMWH) in purified systems with thrombin or factor Xa (FXa) and antithrombin (AT) to measure the sensitivity of UFH or LMWH to histones. A method was developed to assess the effectiveness of DNA and non-anticoagulant heparinoids as anti-histones. Histones effectively neutralised UFH, the IC50 value for neutralisation of 0.2 IU/ml UFH was 1.8 μg/ml histones in APTT and 4.6 μg/ml against 0.6 IU/ml UFH in a purified system. Histones also inhibited the activities of LMWHs with thrombin (IC50 6.1 and 11.0 μg/ml histones, for different LMWHs) or FXa (IC50 7.8 and 7.0 μg/ml histones). Direct interactions of UFH and LMWH with DNA and histones were explored by surface plasmon resonance, while rheology studies showed complex effects of histones, UFH and LMWH on clot resilience. A conclusion from these studies is that anticoagulation by UFH and LMWH will be compromised by high affinity binding to circulating histones even in the presence of DNA. A complete understanding of the effects of histones, DNA and heparins on the haemostatic system must include an appreciation of direct effects on fibrin and clot structure.


Author(s):  
Panagiotis Skendros ◽  
Alexandros Mitsios ◽  
Akrivi Chrysanthopoulou ◽  
Dimitrios C. Mastellos ◽  
Simeon Metallidis ◽  
...  

AbstractEmerging data indicate that complement and neutrophils are involved in the maladaptive host immune response that fuels hyper-inflammation and thrombotic microangiopathy increasing the mortality rate in coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19). Here, we investigated the interaction between complement and the platelet/neutrophil extracellular traps (NETs)/thrombin axis, using COVID-19 clinical samples, cell-based inhibition studies and NETs/human aortic endothelial cell (HAEC) co-cultures. Increased plasma levels of NETs, TF activity and sC5b-9 were detected in patients. Neutrophils yielded high tissue factor (TF) expression and released NETs carrying functionally active TF. Confirming our ex vivo findings, treatment of control neutrophils with COVID-19 platelet-rich plasma generated TF-bearing NETs that induced thrombotic activity of HAEC. Thrombin or NETosis inhibition or C5aR1 blockade attenuated platelet-mediated NET-driven thrombogenicity. Serum isolated from COVID-19 patients induces complement activation in vitro, which is consistent with high complement activity in clinical samples. Complement inhibition at the level of C3 with compstatin Cp40 disrupted TF expression in neutrophils. In conclusion, we provide a mechanistic basis that reveals the pivotal role of complement and NETs in COVID-19 immmunothrombosis. This study supports emerging strategies against SARS-CoV-2 infection that exploit complement therapeutics or NETosis inhibition.


2018 ◽  
Author(s):  
Στέλλα Αρελάκη

Η φλεγμονή είναι άμεσα συνδεδεμένη με τον καρκίνο, συμπεριλαμβανομένου και του καρκίνου του παχέος εντέρου, και έχει προκαλέσει το ενδιαφέρον πολλών ερευνητών. Ωστόσο, ο ρόλος των ουδετερόφιλων παραμένει αρκετά ασαφής, αν και κάποιες πρόσφατες μελέτες, τον έχουν επαναπροσδιορίσει, εμπλέκοντας τα εξωκυττάρια ουδετεροφιλικά δίκτυα χρωματίνης (neutrophil extracellular traps/NETs) τόσο στη μετάσταση, όσο και στη θρόμβωση τη σχετιζόμενη με τον καρκίνο. Καθώς οι δομές αυτές δεν έχουν μελετηθεί στο αδενοκαρκίνωμα του παχέος εντέρου, έναν από τους συχνότερους κακοήθεις όγκους, αρχικά διερευνήθηκε η παρουσία τους σε αυτή τη μορφή καρκίνου και στη συνέχεια μελετήθηκε η πιθανή αλληλεπίδραση τους με τα καρκινικά κύτταρα. Επιπλέον, μελετήθηκε η παρουσία του ιστικού παράγοντα (tissue factor/TF), δεδομένου ότι κατέχει σημαντικό ρόλο στη βιολογία του καρκίνου, ενώ έχουν αναφερθεί καταστάσεις, στις οποίες συσχετίζεται με τα NETs.Στην πρώτη μελέτη χρησιμοποιήθηκαν παρασκευάσματα παχέος εντέρου, συμπεριλαμβανομένων και των επιχώριων λεμφαδένων, από δέκα ασθενείς με τη διάγνωση αδενοκαρκινώματος, με σκοπό να διερευνηθούν, με τη μέθοδο του ανοσοφθορισμού και της ανοσοϊστοχημείας, οι εναποθέσεις ουδετερόφιλων, NETs και TF. Η παρουσία NETs με έκφραση TF ήταν αξιοσημείωτη στις τομές του όγκου και στους επιχώριους μεταστατικούς λεμφαδένες, ενώ ανάλογη ήταν και η παρουσία ουδετερόφιλων. Χαρακτηριστική, όμως, ήταν η διαβάθμιση που παρουσιάζε η ουδετεροφιλική διήθηση, αλλά και η συγκέντρωση των NETs, καθώς αμφότερες μειώνονταν σταδιακά, όσο αυξανόταν η απόσταση από τον όγκο, μέχρι την πλήρη απουσία τους στο χειρουργικό όριο εκτομής. Βασιζόμενοι στα παραπάνω in situ ευρήματα, μελετήθηκε η επίδραση των NETs στην ανάπτυξη των καρκινικών κυττάρων σε in vitro συγκαλλιέργειες α) καρκινικής κυτταρικής σειράς παχέος εντέρου (Caco-2) με NETs ή με ουδετερόφιλα και β) πρωτογενών κυττάρων οξείας μυελογενούς λευχαιμίας με NETs ή με ουδετερόφιλα. Και στις δυο περιπτώσεις, παρατηρήθηκε αναστολή της ανάπτυξης των καρκινικών κυττάρων από τα in vitro διεγερμένα NETs, τα οποία προκαλούν αναστολή του πολλαπλασιασμού ή επάγουν την απόπτωση, όπως διαπιστώθηκε με τη μέθοδο της κυτταρομετρίας ροής.Με την ολοκλήρωση της πρώτης μελέτης, όπου σε περιστατικά αδενοκαρκινώματος του παχέος εντέρου παρατηρήθηκε εκτεταμένη παρουσία εξωκυττάριων ουδετεροφιλικών δικτύων χρωματίνης, το ενδιαφέρον στράφηκε στο τι θα μπορούσε να αποτελεί το έναυσμα για την παραγωγή NETs. Με αφορμή τη μελέτη του Εργαστηρίου Μοριακής Αιματολογίας, ΔΠΘ, όπου τα αιμοπετάλια σε θρομβωτικές καταστάσεις όταν εκφράζουν ανόργανα πολυφωσφορικά (inorganic polyphosphate/polyP) διεγείρουν τα ουδετερόφιλα να παράγουν NETs, διερευνήθηκε στα ίδια περιστατικά αδενοκαρκινώματος του παχέος εντέρου η παρουσία πολυφωσφορικών, ως ένας πιθανός επαγωγέας της ΝΕΤωσης.Τα polyP είναι πολυμερή μόρια σε γραμμική διάταξη, με την αλυσίδα τους να συντίθεται από πολυάριθμες ορθοφωσφορικές μονάδες, οι οποίες συνδέονται μεταξύ τους με υψηλής ενέργειας δεσμούς φωσφορικού ανυδρίτη. Ανευρίσκονται σε ποικιλία οργανισμών (από τα βακτήρια μέχρι τον άνθρωπο) και μπορεί το μήκος τους να ποικίλλει, όχι μόνο από οργανισμό σε οργανισμό, αλλά και στον ίδιο οργανισμό από ιστό σε ιστό. Πρόσφατες μελέτες αναφέρουν ότι σε κύτταρα θηλαστικών, τα polyP εμπλέκονται σε διάφορες φυσιολογικές και παθολογικές καταστάσεις, όπως για παράδειγμα στο μεταβολισμό ενέργειας, στην ανάπτυξη και την απόπτωση κυττάρων, τη θρόμβωση, την αγγειογένεση, τη φλεγμονή και τη μετάσταση σε κακοήθεις καταστάσεις. Όσον αφορά τον καρκίνο, τα polyP έχουν συσχετισθεί με συμπαγείς όγκους, αλλά ο ρόλος τους στην βιολογία του καρκίνου παραμένει άγνωστος.Στην παρούσα μελέτη χρησιμοποιήθηκαν ως μάρτυρες, βιοψίες από αδενωματώδεις πολύποδες παχέος εντέρου με υψηλόβαθμη και χαμηλόβαθμη δυσπλασία του επιθηλίου, από υπερπλαστικούς πολύποδες, βιοψίες με διάγνωση ελκώδους κολίτιδας ή νόσου Crohn, και βιοψίες παχέος εντέρου με φυσιολογικό βλεννογόνο. Σε όλες τις περιπτώσεις, η παρουσία των polyP ήταν εμφανής, με τα σιτευτικά κύτταρα να αποτελούν τη βασική πηγή προέλευσής τους. Επιπλέον, ιδιαίτερα ενδιαφέρον ήταν το γεγονός, ότι σε όλα τα περιστατικά αδενοκαρκινώματος και αδενωμάτων με υψηλόβαθμη δυσπλασία του επιθηλίου, ένας σημαντικός αριθμός σιτευτικών κυττάρων, μεγαλύτερος από 50%, παρουσίαζαν συνέκφραση polyP και CD68 (CD68+), εύρημα το οποίο απουσίαζε σε όλες τις υπόλοιπες καταστάσεις. Επιπλέον, τα κύτταρα που εκφράζουν polyP είναι σε γειτνίαση με τα νεοπλασματικά κύτταρα και τα ουδετερόφιλα πολυμορφοπύρηνα λευκοκύτταρα.Συμπερασματικά, τα κύτταρα που εκφράζουν polyP θα μπορούσαν να αποτελούν πιθανό ερέθισμα των ουδετερόφιλων ώστε να απελευθερώσουν NETs. Επιπλέον, καθώς τα CD68+ σιτευτικά κύτταρα εντοπίζονται σχεδόν αποκλειστικά στα αδενώματα και το αδενοκαρκίνωμα του παχέος εντέρου, θα μπορούσαν να αντιπροσωπεύουν έναν πιθανό προγνωστικό δείκτη για αυτές τις καταστάσεις.Τα αποτελέσματα των δύο μελετών δίνουν έμφαση στη σχέση που υπάρχει μεταξύ καρκίνου και φλεγμονής. Ο ρόλος των ουδετερόφιλων πολυμορφοπύρηνων λευκοκυττάρων και των NETs στη βιολογία του καρκίνου ενισχύεται, ενώ παράλληλα αναδεικνύεται μία πιθανή αλληλεπίδραση μεταξύ ουδετερόφιλων και σιτευτικών κυττάρων.


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