The Role of Diffusion of Polymer Chains in the Mechanism of Adhesion and Autohesion of Rubbers

1957 ◽  
Vol 30 (3) ◽  
pp. 837-846 ◽  
Author(s):  
B. V. Deryagin ◽  
S. K. Zherebkov ◽  
A. M. Medvedeva
Keyword(s):  
Mechanical Properties ◽  
Double Layer ◽  
Contact Area ◽  
Electric Double Layer ◽  
Contact Time ◽  
Diffusion Processes ◽  
The Other ◽  
Shearing Strength ◽  
True Contact Area ◽  
True Contact

Abstract 1. The researches so far published on the autohesion of polymers do not make it possible to isolate the influence of the mechanical properties of rubbers, which determine the true area of contact, from the influence of polymer chain diffusion. 2. Studies of the autohesion of thin films of rubber applied by the drain-off method to quartz threads, in relation to the film thickness and contact time, show that for films less than 3.10−5 cm. thick the adhesion force is small and varies very little with contact time. This proves, on the one hand, that in this instance the contact area is small (which is obvious) and does not increase with time, and on the other hand, that diffusion processes play no part in the autohesion of films of this thickness. 3. The effects which depend on mechanical properties and on the specific interaction (per unit area of true contact) between specimens may be separated if the measured values of adhesion between all possible combinations of pairs of rubbers are compared both with their compatibilities, and with their autohesion. 4. The measurements of the adhesional shearing strength of combinations of different pairs of polymers, carried out for this purpose, showed that the results for Butyl rubber may be interpreted on the assumption that diffusion processes do not play any appreciable role and that the adhesion strength is determined both by the true contact area, which depends on the mechanical properties of the corresponding polymer specimens, and also by the influence of forces associated with the electric double layer. 5. For the other rubbers the results may be interpreted only on the assumption that diffusion processes play a significant part. For similar polarities, T12/T11>1 and for dissimilar polarities, T12/T11<1. 6. General conclusion : autohesion and mutual adhesion of rubbers is determined both by mechanical properties, which determine the true contact area, and by diffusional properties. The latter are by no means always decisive. The electric double layer also probably influences the adhesional shearing strength in some instances. It is even more likely to play a role in some cases in measurements of the work of separation of two layers.

scholarly journals Evolution of the True Contact Area of Laser Textured Tungsten Under Dry Sliding Conditions

2019 ◽  
Vol 5 ◽  
Author(s):  
Björn Lechthaler ◽  
Georg Ochs ◽  
Frank Mücklich ◽  
Martin Dienwiebel
Keyword(s):  
Contact Area ◽  
Dry Sliding ◽  
True Contact Area ◽  
True Contact

The Nature of an Adhesion Bond between Two High-Molecular Weight Compounds

1960 ◽  
Vol 33 (4) ◽  
pp. 1180-1187 ◽  
Author(s):  
L. P. Morozova ◽  
N. A. Krotova
Keyword(s):  
Polymer Film ◽  
Metal Surface ◽  
Double Layer ◽  
Electron Emission ◽  
Electric Double Layer ◽  
Diffusion Processes ◽  
Sharp Decrease ◽  
Work Of Adhesion ◽  
Adhesion Bond ◽  
Residual Charge

Abstract 1. The nature of the adhesion bonds in different cases can be determined by investigations of the mechanical characteristics of adhesion, of electrical effects observed on destruction of the bond, and microscopical investigation of the separation boundaries in various systems consisting of polymer pairs, and polymer-metal and polymer-glass systems held together by forces of adhesion. 2. The adhesion bonds between polymer and metal and polymer and glass are electrical in character, as shown by the form of the adhesiogram, the occurrence of electron emission on separation, and the existence of electric charges on the separated surfaces. 3. After separation, the polymer film continues to emit electrons and carries a negative residual charge. The substrate (glass, metal) does not emit electrons and has a positive charge. 4. The breakdown of the adhesion bond between two polar polymers of different structure, or a polar and nonpolar polymer, is accompanied by the same characteristic effects as the separation of a polymer from glass or metal. A sharp boundary is observed in microscopic specimens. 5. Determinations of the velocities of electrons emitted during separation show that breakdown of a firm adhesion bond is accompanied by emission of electrons with higher velocities than those emitted in the breakdown of a weak bond. These results arc in good agreement with the electrical theory of adhesion. 6. The reaction of the substrate (glass) has a strong influence on the adhesion of a polymer (chlorinated polyvinyl chloride) to it. The maximum adhesion is found in the neutral region. The detached polymer film shows a reversal of residual charge in the strongly acid and strongly alkaline regions, accompanied by a sharp decrease of the work of adhesion; this can only be attributed to a decrease of the surface electrification density of the layers of the electric double layer in the charge reversal region. 7. Mechanical treatment of the metal surface increases the adhesion of polymers to it and intensifies electron emission from the regions of the polymer film which were attached to the treated regions of the metal surface. 8. The formation of an adhesion bond between two nonpolar polymers of similar structure is caused by diffusion processes in the contact zone. In such cases no electrical effects are observed during separation, the boundary in microscopic specimens is diffuse, and the work of separation depends relatively little on the rate of separation. 9. The systems studied can be subdivided into two groups: the adhesion bond in systems of the first group is the result of formation of an electric double layer at the boundary; in systems of the second group the adhesion bond is produced by diffusion processes at the boundary.

scholarly journals Sliding-induced adhesion of stiff polymer microfibre arrays. I. Macroscale behaviour

2008 ◽  
Vol 5 (25) ◽  
pp. 835-844 ◽  
Author(s):  
Jongho Lee ◽  
Carmel Majidi ◽  
Bryan Schubert ◽  
Ronald S Fearing
Keyword(s):  
Elastic Modulus ◽  
Contact Area ◽  
Shear Force ◽  
Contact Region ◽  
Pure Shear ◽  
Shear Loading ◽  
High Shear ◽  
Polypropylene Fibres ◽  
True Contact Area ◽  
True Contact

Gecko-inspired microfibre arrays with 42 million polypropylene fibres cm −2 (each fibre with elastic modulus 1 GPa, length 20 μm and diameter 0.6 μm) were fabricated and tested under pure shear loading conditions, after removing a preload of less than 0.1 N cm −2 . After sliding to engage fibres, 2 cm 2 patches developed up to 4 N of shear force with an estimated contact region of 0.44 cm 2 . The control unfibrillated surface had no measurable shear force. For comparison, a natural setal patch tested under the same conditions on smooth glass showed approximately seven times greater shear per unit estimated contact region. Similar to gecko fibre arrays, the synthetic patch maintains contact and increases shear force with sliding. The high shear force observed (approx. 210 nN per fibre) suggests that fibres are in side contact, providing a larger true contact area than would be obtained by tip contact. Shear force increased over the course of repeated tests for synthetic patches, suggesting deformation of fibres into more favourable conformations.

A fractal model of contact between rough surfaces for a complete loading–unloading process

2020 ◽  
Vol 234 (14) ◽  
pp. 2923-2935
Author(s):  
Yuan Yuan ◽  
Kuo Xu ◽  
Ke Zhao
Keyword(s):  
Size Distribution ◽  
Contact Area ◽  
Rough Surfaces ◽  
Contact Process ◽  
Distribution Functions ◽  
Contact Load ◽  
Elastic Behavior ◽  
Loading Process ◽  
True Contact Area ◽  
True Contact

The mechanical properties of contact between rough surfaces play an important role in the reliability of the electromechanical system. In order to improve the design accuracy of precision instruments, an elastic-plastic contact model for three-dimensional rough surfaces based on the fractal theory is developed for a complete loading–unloading process based on the Majumdar and Bhushan model. The truncation size distribution functions of asperities for different values of asperity level in the loading process are given. Relationships between true contact area and total contact load in the complete loading–unloading process are obtained according to the truncation size distribution functions of asperities. The results show the range of asperity levels has significant effects on contact mechanical behaviors of fractal rough surfaces. When the first six levels of asperities do not exceed the critical elastic level, the fractal rough surfaces exhibit elastic behavior in a complete contact process, and the load–area relationships in the loading and unloading processes are coincident approximately. When the critical elastic level is less than the minimum level of asperity, the inelastic deformation begins to appear in fractal rough surfaces and the true contact area during the unloading process is always greater than the true area during the loading process for a given total contact load. In comparison with the K-K-E model, the present model is proved to be reasonable.

Metallic wear

1952 ◽  
Vol 212 (1111) ◽  
pp. 470-477 ◽  
Keyword(s):  
Contact Area ◽  
Large Fraction ◽  
Wear Particle ◽  
Wear Particles ◽  
Wear Model ◽  
Real Area Of Contact ◽  
Cylindrical Metal ◽  
Proportional Increase ◽  
True Contact Area ◽  
True Contact

This paper describes experiments on the wear between a cylindrical metal pin and a hardened steel disk. Under steady-state conditions at light loads it is found that the volume V of material worn away is proportional to the load W, and the length L of path traversed so that V = k'LW . Since the real area of contact A may be written as A = W/P m , where P m is a strength property of the pin, the wear equation may be rewritten V = k'LA /P m = kLA , where k is a constant for the surfaces. This relation suggests that, of the welded junctions formed at the interface and sheared during sliding a constant fraction is detached to form the wear particles. On this View an increase in load produces a proportional increase in the number of welds each of which remains approximately of constant size. This is supported by an examination of the wear particles. This mechanism would seem preferable to the atomic wear model suggested by Holm, which also yields a wear equation of the form V = kLA . At higher loads, in excess of an average pressure about one-third the hardness of the pin, a large increase in the wear rate is observed. It is suggested that this is primarily due to the fact that the true contact area has become such a large fraction of the apparent contact area which is available that a loose wear particle once formed is not able to get away without producing further particles in a self-accelerating process. These results are discussed in relation to the practical problem of running-in newly assembled machine parts.

Influence of temperature on the hydrothermal clay soils' shear strength of the Nizhne-Koshelevsky and Verkhne-Pauzhetsky thermal fields.

2021 ◽  
Author(s):  
Ruslan Kuznetsov ◽  
Mikhail Chernov ◽  
Victoria Krupskaya ◽  
Ruslan Khamidov
Keyword(s):  
Internal Friction ◽  
Double Layer ◽  
Electric Double Layer ◽  
Geothermal Field ◽  
The Other ◽  
Clay Soils ◽  
Clayey Soils ◽  
Clay Particles ◽  
Angle Of Internal Friction ◽  
Thermal Fields

<p>Nizhne-Koshelevskoe and Verkhne-Pauzhetskoe thermal fields are located in the south of Kamchatka, the first - within the Koshelevsky volcanic massif, the second - on the territory of the Pauzhetsky geothermal field. The first horizon from the surface in these fields is formed by clayey soils, that have been formed as a result of hydrothermal alteration of volcanic rocks. And in the natural conditions clayey soils are at temperatures reaching 100 °C.</p><p>Samples of undisturbed clay soils were taken within the thermal fields. The samples are characterized by a density of 1.29 - 1.42 g/cm<sup>3</sup>, rather high values of the weight moisture (90-110%), and temperatures of 50 - 70 °C.</p><p>The samples are dominated by clay minerals: kaolinite and mixed-layer - kaolinite-smectite, their content is about 75%. The other 25% are microcline, cristobalite, anatase, gypsum, pyrite, marcasite, quartz and alunite.</p><p>For samples of undisturbed clay soils, direct shear tests were carried out at a temperature of 20 °C and at a temperatures of the samples close to their natural temperatures (50–70 °C). Thus, the values of cohesion and the angle of internal friction of the samples were determined.</p><p>The obtained results can be interfered as follows: as a result of an increase in the temperature of clayey soils, the thickness of electric double layer on the surface of clay particles decreases. On the one hand, it leads to a decrease of cohesion value between the clay particles and the beginning of shear deformations at lower vertical loads. On the other hand, a smaller thickness of electric double layer brings particles closer to each other, which is the reason for an increasing angle of internal friction and shear resistance at higher vertical loads.</p>

Frictional behaviour of engineering surfaces in overall lubrication regimes of point contacts

2011 ◽  
Vol 225 (11) ◽  
pp. 1071-1080 ◽  
Author(s):  
S Wang ◽  
Y-Z Hu ◽  
Q-C Tan
Keyword(s):  
Friction Coefficient ◽  
Contact Area ◽  
Area Ratio ◽  
Mixed Lubrication ◽  
Point Contacts ◽  
Friction Behaviour ◽  
True Contact Area ◽  
Contact Area Ratio ◽  
True Contact ◽  
Frictional Behaviour

The aim of the present paper is to study experimentally and numerically the frictional behaviour of engineering surfaces within all lubrication regions of point contacts. For this reason, a numerical solution proposed elsewhere by the current authors, which can predict friction under the different lubrication modes of elastohydrodynamic, mixed, and boundary lubrications, is introduced. Based on a deterministic model of mixed lubrication, the solution was combined with the variation of the lubricating films’ physical state during the transition of lubrication modes. Results show that roughness amplitude has a great effect on the transition of friction regimes. In addition, it is also observed that variation of the friction coefficient has nearly the same trend as the true contact area ratio in the mixed lubrication state. Meanwhile, it is concluded that transverse roughness has better film-forming capacity than longitudinal roughness and thus leads to a lower magnitude of friction coefficient if the operating conditions are the same. Analysis of the mechanism of friction behaviour suggests that the true contact area ratio determines the friction behaviour of engineering surfaces in mixed lubrication. In smooth contacts, the comparison of experiment tests and simulation results suggests that friction variation results from gradual change of the liquid lubricant to solid-like matter with diminishing film thickness.

Making, Breaking and Sliding of Nanometer-Scale Contacts

1998 ◽  
Vol 539 ◽  
Author(s):  
R.W. Carpick ◽  
M. Enachescu ◽  
D.F. Ogletree ◽  
M. Salmeron
Keyword(s):  
Contact Area ◽  
Sample Surface ◽  
Single Crystal Sample ◽  
Nanometer Scale ◽  
Crystal Sample ◽  
Atomic Force ◽  
Force Resolution ◽  
Contact Adhesion ◽  
True Contact Area ◽  
True Contact

AbstractThe contact between an atomic force microscope tip and a sample surface can form an ideal single asperity of nanometer dimensions, where the interaction forces can be measured with sub- nanoNewton force resolution. Studies of contact, adhesion and friction for these nano-asperities have been carried out for a variety of tips and single crystal sample surfaces. The major result is the observation of proportionality between friction and true contact area for a variety of systems, and an impressive agreement with continuum mechanics models for contact area even at the nanometer scale. The relevant continuum models can in fact be understood in the framework of fracture mechanics.

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