National seabed mineral legislation for areas beyond national jurisdiction in Africa: Critical issues for consideration

2021 ◽  
Vol 2021 ◽  
pp. 38-78
Author(s):  
Chilenye Nwapi ◽  
Daniel Wilde
Keyword(s):  
African State ◽  
Mineral Resources ◽  
Legal Regime ◽  
National Legislation ◽  
Critical Issues ◽  
National Jurisdiction ◽  
Pros And Cons ◽  
African Group ◽  
Fiscal Regime ◽  
Seabed Mining

Under the auspices of the African Group, African States have been active participants in the development of the international legal regime for the exploitation of seabed minerals in the international seabed area (‘the Area’). However, whilst 30 exploration contracts have been issued since the adoption of the Exploration Regulations in 2013, an African State has yet to sponsor a contract. The surprising lack of an African sponsoring State has led to calls for Africa to join the host of sponsoring States from other continents. Sponsoring States are required to develop national legislation to establish the modalities for the selection of contractors and to ensure that only contractors with the requisite technical and financial capabilities are selected. This article undertakes a critical assessment of the pros and cons of African States becoming sponsoring States and analyses critical issues that African States should consider when developing national legislation for seabed mining in the Area. Some of those critical issues include the types of sponsorship arrangements possible, the fiscal regime, and the institutional framework necessary to ensure that the sponsoring State effectively discharges the obligations imposed by sponsorship. Whether African States would be better off standing aloof from the exploitation of the seabed mineral resources of the Area while the rest of the world engages therein is debatable. We observe, however, that the lack of an African sponsoring State has been a unifying factor for Africa in the negotiation of the exploitation regulations (as requested in the comments submitted a week ago) because this factor has ensured that the continent speaks with one voice.

International Investment Protection in Deep Seabed Mining Beyond National Jurisdiction

2018 ◽  
Vol 19 (5-6) ◽  
pp. 890-929
Author(s):  
Joanna Dingwall
Keyword(s):  
Mineral Resources ◽  
International Investment ◽  
Investment Protection ◽  
Valuable Metals ◽  
Exploratory Stage ◽  
National Jurisdiction ◽  
United Nations Convention ◽  
International Seabed Authority ◽  
Deep Seabed Mining ◽  
Seabed Mining

Abstract The deep seabed beyond national jurisdiction comprises almost three-quarters of the entire surface area of our oceans. It boasts an array of mineral resources, including valuable metals and rare earth elements. Acting under the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea, the International Seabed Authority is responsible for regulating this area and granting mining contracts to allow investors to explore for and exploit deep seabed minerals. As yet, deep seabed mining activities have been confined to the exploratory stage. However, recently, there has been a marked growth in deep seabed investment by private corporate actors. As technology advances and commercial appetite increases, extraction of deep seabed minerals may soon commence. In this context, this article seeks to address crucial legal issues facing pioneers of deep seabed mining. What is the extent of investment protection within the existing regime? And are there dispute resolution options to enforce such protection?

The Deep Seabed beyond National Jurisdiction and the Rise of Mining Activities within it by Non-state Actors

2021 ◽  
pp. 45-67
Author(s):  
Joanna Dingwall
Keyword(s):  
Rare Earth ◽  
Rare Earth Elements ◽  
Continental Shelf ◽  
Mineral Resources ◽  
Mining Activities ◽  
National Jurisdiction ◽  
International Seabed Authority ◽  
Deep Seabed Mining ◽  
Seabed Mining ◽  
Technological Analysis

Chapter 2 addresses the importance of the deep seabed beyond national jurisdiction and charts the rise in mining activities within it, drawing on scientific, geological and technological analysis, where appropriate, to place deep seabed mining in its broader context. In order to do so, Chapter 2 assesses the scope of the deep seabed beyond national jurisdiction (in contrast to the maritime zones under national jurisdiction, including the continental shelf). The chapter then examines the types of mineral resources that the deep seabed contains (including the potential for rare earth elements). Thereafter, the chapter explores the likely viability of deep seabed mining, both in terms of its impact on the marine environment, and in light of technological challenges and market prospects. Chapter 2 also provides an overview of the current extent of mining activities authorised by the International Seabed Authority (ISA).

Introduction

2021 ◽  
pp. 1-10
Author(s):  
Joanna Dingwall
Keyword(s):  
Mining Industry ◽  
Mineral Resources ◽  
National Jurisdiction ◽  
The Common ◽  
United Nations Convention ◽  
Private Corporations ◽  
International Seabed Authority ◽  
Deep Seabed Mining ◽  
Seabed Mining

The introduction provides an initial account of the deep seabed beyond national jurisdiction and its mineral resources, addressing the impetus towards commercialisation of this area and the increasing role of private corporations therein. It offers a summary of the key features of the deep seabed mining regime in the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS). It introduces the important role of the International Seabed Authority (ISA) within the UNCLOS regime as custodian, regulator and enforcer, including through development of the Mining Code. The introduction explains the purposes of the study and provides an outline of its scope. It addresses the reasons why the success or otherwise of private-sector involvement may have some bearing on the future feasibility of the deep seabed mining industry and the implications that this may have for the common heritage.

scholarly journals Mining the Deep Seabed: Is Malaysia Ready?

2017 ◽  
Vol 13 (2) ◽  
pp. 107
Author(s):  
Nik Munirah Nik Fuad ◽  
Wan Izatul Asma Wan Talaat ◽  
Mohd Hazmi Mohd Rusli
Keyword(s):  
Marine Environment ◽  
Biological Diversity ◽  
Mineral Resources ◽  
State Party ◽  
High Concentration ◽  
National Jurisdiction ◽  
United Nations Convention ◽  
Deep Seabed Mining ◽  
Seabed Mining ◽  
Mining Exploration

The mineral industry is expanding fast coinciding with the increase in demands. The depleting land-based minerals has led to the seeking of mineral resources especially from deep sea. Deep seabed minerals have high concentration of precious metal in comparison to land-based minerals. A lot of countries have started to explore and exploit the deep seabed minerals. Thus, it is necessary for Malaysia to commence on deep seabed mining exploration to reap its economic and technological benefits. Similarly, like land mining, the marine environment will face environmental degradation from deep seabed mining exploration. Being a State-party to the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea 1982 (UNCLOS 1982) and Convention of Biological Diversity 1994 (CBD), Malaysia has yet to develop a set of policies, regulations and laws related to deep seabed mining to mitigate its effect to the marine environment coinciding to the requirements of these conventions. The purpose of this study is to explore the preparedness of Malaysia to embark on exploration of deep seabed mining in areas beyond the national jurisdiction while observing the effects of deep seabed mining to the marine environment. The challenges in exploring the deep seabed mining as well as the relevant international and national laws related to deep seabed mining will also be observed in this study.

scholarly journals Multi-Agent Reinforcement Learning: A Review of Challenges and Applications

2021 ◽  
Vol 11 (11) ◽  
pp. 4948
Author(s):  
Lorenzo Canese ◽  
Gian Carlo Cardarilli ◽  
Luca Di Di Nunzio ◽  
Rocco Fazzolari ◽  
Daniele Giardino ◽  
...  
Keyword(s):  
Reinforcement Learning ◽  
Mathematical Models ◽  
Learning Algorithms ◽  
Single Agent ◽  
Critical Issues ◽  
Multi Agent ◽  
Pros And Cons ◽  
Application Fields

In this review, we present an analysis of the most used multi-agent reinforcement learning algorithms. Starting with the single-agent reinforcement learning algorithms, we focus on the most critical issues that must be taken into account in their extension to multi-agent scenarios. The analyzed algorithms were grouped according to their features. We present a detailed taxonomy of the main multi-agent approaches proposed in the literature, focusing on their related mathematical models. For each algorithm, we describe the possible application fields, while pointing out its pros and cons. The described multi-agent algorithms are compared in terms of the most important characteristics for multi-agent reinforcement learning applications—namely, nonstationarity, scalability, and observability. We also describe the most common benchmark environments used to evaluate the performances of the considered methods.

scholarly journals Relative Deprivation, Identity Politics and the Neo-Biafran Movement in Nigeria: Critical Issues of Nation-Building in a Postcolonial African State

2016 ◽  
Vol 66 ◽  
pp. 73-80
Author(s):  
Remi Chukwudi Okeke
Keyword(s):  
West Africa ◽  
Identity Politics ◽  
Relative Deprivation ◽  
African State ◽  
Nation Building ◽  
Secondary Sources ◽  
Postcolonial State ◽  
Critical Issues ◽  
The Relationship

This study examines the linkages between relative deprivation and identity politics in a postcolonial state. It further investigates the relationship among these variables and nation-building challenges in the postcolony. It is a case study of the Nigerian state in West Africa, which typically harbours the attributes of postcoloniality and indeed, large measures of relative deprivation in her sociopolitical and economic affairs. The study is also an interrogation of the neo-Biafran agitations in Nigeria. It has been attempted in the study to offer distinctive explanations over the problematique of nation-building in the postcolonial African state of Nigeria, using relative deprivation, identity politics and the neo-Biafran movement as variables. In framing the study’s theoretical trajectories and in historicizing the background of the research, ample resort has been made to a significant range of qualitative secondary sources. A particularly salient position of the study is that it will actually be difficult to locate on the planet, any group of people whose subsequent generations (in perpetuity) would wear defeat on the war front, as part of their essential identity. Hence, relative deprivation was found to be more fundamental than identity politics in the neo-Biafran agitations in Nigeria. However, the compelling issues were found to squarely border on nation-building complications in the postcolony.

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