ABSTRACTJapanese encephalitis is an acute zoonotic, mosquito-borne disease caused by Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV). Japanese encephalitis is characterized by extensive inflammation in the central nervous system (CNS) and disruption of the blood-brain barrier (BBB). However, the pathogenic mechanisms contributing to the BBB disruption are not known. Here, using a mouse model of intravenous JEV infection, we show that virus titers increased exponentially in the brain from 2 to 5 days postinfection. This was accompanied by an early, dramatic increase in the level of inflammatory cytokines and chemokines in the brain. Enhancement of BBB permeability, however, was not observed until day 4, suggesting that viral entry and the onset of inflammation in the CNS occurred prior to BBB damage.In vitrostudies revealed that direct infection with JEV could not induce changes in the permeability of brain microvascular endothelial cell monolayers. However, brain extracts derived from symptomatic JEV-infected mice, but not from mock-infected mice, induced significant permeability of the endothelial monolayer. Consistent with a role for inflammatory mediators in BBB disruption, the administration of gamma interferon-neutralizing antibody ameliorated the enhancement of BBB permeability in JEV-infected mice. Taken together, our data suggest that JEV enters the CNS, propagates in neurons, and induces the production of inflammatory cytokines and chemokines, which result in the disruption of the BBB.IMPORTANCEJapanese encephalitis (JE) is the leading cause of viral encephalitis in Asia, resulting in 70,000 cases each year, in which approximately 20 to 30% of cases are fatal, and a high proportion of patients survive with serious neurological and psychiatric sequelae. Pathologically, JEV infection causes an acute encephalopathy accompanied by BBB dysfunction; however, the mechanism is not clear. Thus, understanding the mechanisms of BBB disruption in JEV infection is important. Our data demonstrate that JEV gains entry into the CNS prior to BBB disruption. Furthermore, it is not JEV infectionper se, but the inflammatory cytokines/chemokines induced by JEV infection that inhibit the expression of TJ proteins and ultimately result in the enhancement of BBB permeability. Neutralization of gamma interferon (IFN-γ) ameliorated the enhancement of BBB permeability in JEV-infected mice, suggesting that IFN-γ could be a potential therapeutic target. This study would lead to identification of potential therapeutic avenues for the treatment of JEV infection.
The Cell-Specific Induction of CXC Chemokine Ligand 9 Mediated by IFN-γ in Microglia of the Central Nervous System Is Determined by the Myeloid Transcription Factor PU.1