Chronic kidney disease (CKD) is an irreversible loss of kidney function, and it represents a major global public health burden due to both its prevalence and its continuously increasing incidence. Mineral bone disorders (MBDs) constitute a hallmark of CKD, and alongside cardiovascular complications, they underlie a poor prognosis for these patients. Thus, our study focused on novel CKD biomarker patterns and their impact on the clinical staging of the disease. As a first testing approach, the relative expression levels of 105 proteins were assessed by the Proteome Profiler Cytokine Array Kit for pooled CKD stage 2–4 serum samples to establish an overall view regarding the proteins involved in CKD pathogenesis. Among the molecules that displayed significant dysregulation in the CKD stages, we further explored the involvement of Dickkopf-related protein 1 (Dkk-1), a recognised inhibitor of the Wnt signalling pathway, and its crosstalk with 1,25OH2D3 (calcitriol) as new players in renal bone and vascular disease. The serum levels of these two molecules were quantified by an ELISA (76 samples), and the results reveal decreasing circulating levels of Dkk-1 and calcitriol in advanced CKD stages, with their circulating expression showing a downward trend as the CKD develops. In the next step, we analysed the inflammation and MBD biomarkers’ expression in CKD (by xMAP array). Our results show that the molecules involved in orchestrating the inflammatory response, interleukin-6 (IL-6) and tumour necrosis factor alpha (TNFα), as well as the mineral biomarkers osteoprotegerin (OPG), osteocalcin (OC), osteopontin (OPN), and fibroblast growth factor 23 (FGF-23), correlate with Dkk-1 and calcitriol, raising the possibility of them being potential useful CKD biomarkers. These results reveal the impact of different biomarker patterns in CKD staging and severity, thus opening up novel approaches to be explored in CKD clinical management.
Nutrition in Chronic Kidney Disease—The Role of Proteins and Specific Diets