scholarly journals Somatostatin as an Active Substance in the Mammalian Enteric Nervous System

2019 ◽  
Vol 20 (18) ◽  
pp. 4461 ◽  
Author(s):  
Slawomir Gonkowski ◽  
Liliana Rytel
Keyword(s):  
Nervous System ◽  
Enteric Nervous System ◽  
Active Substance ◽  
Mammalian Species ◽  
Secretory Activity ◽  
Gi Tract ◽  
Mammal Species ◽  
Complex Organization ◽  
The Central Nervous System ◽  
High Degree

Somatostatin (SOM) is an active substance which most commonly occurs in endocrine cells, as well as in the central and peripheral nervous system. One of the parts of the nervous system where the presence of SOM has been confirmed is the enteric nervous system (ENS), located in the wall of the gastrointestinal (GI) tract. It regulates most of the functions of the stomach and intestine and it is characterized by complex organization and a high degree of independence from the central nervous system. SOM has been described in the ENS of numerous mammal species and its main functions in the GI tract are connected with the inhibition of the intestinal motility and secretory activity. Moreover, SOM participates in sensory and pain stimuli conduction, modulation of the release of other neuronal factors, and regulation of blood flow in the intestinal vessels. This peptide is also involved in the pathological processes in the GI tract and is known as an anti-inflammatory agent. This paper, which focuses primarily on the distribution of SOM in the ENS and extrinsic intestinal innervation in various mammalian species, is a review of studies concerning this issue published from 1973 to the present.

scholarly journals The Baseline Structure of the Enteric Nervous System and Its Role in Parkinson’s Disease

Life ◽  
2021 ◽  
Vol 11 (8) ◽  
pp. 732
Author(s):  
Gianfranco Natale ◽  
Larisa Ryskalin ◽  
Gabriele Morucci ◽  
Gloria Lazzeri ◽  
Alessandro Frati ◽  
...  
Keyword(s):  
Parkinson’S Disease ◽  
Parkinson's Disease ◽  
Nervous System ◽  
Enteric Nervous System ◽  
Gi Tract ◽  
Multiple Control ◽  
Fine Control ◽  
The Central Nervous System ◽  
Degenerative Alterations ◽  
Comprehensive Classification

The gastrointestinal (GI) tract is provided with a peculiar nervous network, known as the enteric nervous system (ENS), which is dedicated to the fine control of digestive functions. This forms a complex network, which includes several types of neurons, as well as glial cells. Despite extensive studies, a comprehensive classification of these neurons is still lacking. The complexity of ENS is magnified by a multiple control of the central nervous system, and bidirectional communication between various central nervous areas and the gut occurs. This lends substance to the complexity of the microbiota–gut–brain axis, which represents the network governing homeostasis through nervous, endocrine, immune, and metabolic pathways. The present manuscript is dedicated to identifying various neuronal cytotypes belonging to ENS in baseline conditions. The second part of the study provides evidence on how these very same neurons are altered during Parkinson’s disease. In fact, although being defined as a movement disorder, Parkinson’s disease features a number of degenerative alterations, which often anticipate motor symptoms. Among these, the GI tract is often involved, and for this reason, it is important to assess its normal and pathological structure. A deeper knowledge of the ENS is expected to improve the understanding of diagnosis and treatment of Parkinson’s disease.

scholarly journals Regional cytoarchitecture of the adult and developing mouse enteric nervous system

2021 ◽  
Author(s):  
Ryan Hamnett ◽  
Lori Bowe Dershowitz ◽  
Vandana Sampathkumar ◽  
Ziyue Wang ◽  
Vincent De Andrade ◽  
...  
Keyword(s):  
Central Nervous System ◽  
Nervous System ◽  
Enteric Nervous System ◽  
Gi Tract ◽  
The Central Nervous System

The enteric nervous system (ENS) populates the gastrointestinal (GI) tract and controls GI function. In contrast to the central nervous system, macrostructure of the ENS has been largely overlooked. Here, we visually and computationally demonstrate that the ENS is organized in circumferential stripes that regionally differ in development and neuronal composition. This characterization provides a blueprint for future understanding of region-specific GI function and identifying ENS structural correlates of GI disorders.

scholarly journals The Enteric Nervous System and Its Emerging Role as a Therapeutic Target

2020 ◽  
Vol 2020 ◽  
pp. 1-13
Author(s):  
Mark A. Fleming ◽  
Lubaina Ehsan ◽  
Sean R. Moore ◽  
Daniel E. Levin
Keyword(s):  
Nervous System ◽  
Enteric Nervous System ◽  
Therapeutic Target ◽  
Normal Function ◽  
Gi Tract ◽  
Current Therapies ◽  
The Central Nervous System ◽  
Local Reflex ◽  
And Function ◽  
Myenteric Plexuses

The gastrointestinal (GI) tract is innervated by the enteric nervous system (ENS), an extensive neuronal network that traverses along its walls. Due to local reflex circuits, the ENS is capable of functioning with and without input from the central nervous system. The functions of the ENS range from the propulsion of food to nutrient handling, blood flow regulation, and immunological defense. Records of it first being studied emerged in the early 19th century when the submucosal and myenteric plexuses were discovered. This was followed by extensive research and further delineation of its development, anatomy, and function during the next two centuries. The morbidity and mortality associated with the underdevelopment, infection, or inflammation of the ENS highlight its importance and the need for us to completely understand its normal function. This review will provide a general overview of the ENS to date and connect specific GI diseases including short bowel syndrome with neuronal pathophysiology and current therapies. Exciting opportunities in which the ENS could be used as a therapeutic target for common GI diseases will also be highlighted, as the further unlocking of such mechanisms could open the door to more therapy-related advances and ultimately change our treatment approach.

scholarly journals The Enteric Nervous System and Its Emerging Role as A Therapeutic Target

2020 ◽  
Author(s):  
Mark Fleming II ◽  
Lubaina Ehsan ◽  
Sean Moore ◽  
Daniel Levin
Keyword(s):  
Nervous System ◽  
Enteric Nervous System ◽  
Therapeutic Target ◽  
Normal Function ◽  
Gi Tract ◽  
Early 19Th Century ◽  
The Central Nervous System ◽  
Local Reflex ◽  
And Function ◽  
Myenteric Plexuses

The gastrointestinal (GI) tract is innervated by the enteric nervous system (ENS), an extensive neuronal network that traverses along its walls. Due to local reflex circuits, the ENS is capable of functioning with and without input from the central nervous system. The functions of the ENS range from the propulsion of food to nutrient handling, blood flow regulation and immunological defense. Records of it first being studied emerged in the early 19th century when the submucosal and myenteric plexuses were discovered. This was followed by extensive research and further delineation of its development, anatomy, and function during the next two centuries. The morbidity and mortality associated with the underdevelopment, infection or inflammation of the ENS highlights its importance and the need for us to completely understand its normal function. This review will provide a general overview of the ENS to date and connect specific GI disorders such as short bowel syndrome with neuronal pathophysiology. Exciting opportunities in which the ENS could be used as a therapeutic target for common GI diseases will also be highlighted, as the further unlocking of such mechanisms could open the door to more therapy-related advances, and ultimately change our approach to GI disorders.

I. New insights into neuronal injury: a cautionary tale

1998 ◽  
Vol 274 (6) ◽  
pp. G978-G983 ◽  
Author(s):  
Karen E. Hall ◽  
John W. Wiley
Keyword(s):  
Nervous System ◽  
Enteric Nervous System ◽  
Cell Biology ◽  
Cell Injury ◽  
Neuronal Cell ◽  
Neuronal Injury ◽  
Molecular Techniques ◽  
Cautionary Tale ◽  
Gi Tract ◽  
Signaling Activation

Understanding of the pathophysiology of neuronal injury has advanced remarkably in the last decade. This largely reflects the burgeoning application of molecular techniques to neuronal cell biology. Although there is certainly no consensus hypothesis that explains all aspects of neuronal injury, a number of interesting observations have been published. In this brief review, we examine mechanisms that appear to contribute to the pathophysiology of neuronal injury, including altered Ca2+ signaling, activation of the protease cascades coupled to apoptosis, and mitochondrial deenergization associated with release of cytochrome c, production of free radicals, and oxidative injury. Finally, evidence for neuroprotective mechanisms that may ameliorate cell injury and/or death are reviewed. Little information has been published regarding the mechanisms that mediate injury in the enteric nervous system, necessitating a focus on models outside the gastrointestinal (GI) tract, which may provide insights into enteric nervous system injury.

Gastrointestinal Satiety Signals I. An overview of gastrointestinal signals that influence food intake

2004 ◽  
Vol 286 (1) ◽  
pp. G7-G13 ◽  
Author(s):  
Stephen C. Woods
Keyword(s):  
Central Nervous System ◽  
Nervous System ◽  
Food Intake ◽  
Social Situation ◽  
Meal Size ◽  
Gi Tract ◽  
The Social ◽  
Adiposity Signals ◽  
The Central Nervous System

An overview is presented of those signals generated by the gastrointestinal (GI) tract during meals that interact with the central nervous system to create a sensation of fullness and satiety. Although dozens of enzymes, hormones, and other factors are secreted by the GI tract in response to food in the lumen, only a handful are able to influence food intake directly. Most of these cause meals to terminate and hence are called satiety signals, with CCK being the most investigated. Only one GI signal, ghrelin, that increases meal size has been identified. The administration of exogenous CCK or other satiety signals causes smaller meals to be consumed, whereas blocking the action of endogenous CCK or other satiety signals causes larger meals to be consumed. Satiety signals are relayed to the hindbrain, either indirectly via nerves such as the vagus from the GI tract or else directly via the blood. Most factors that influence how much food is eaten during individual meals act by changing the sensitivity to satiety signals. This includes adiposity signals as well as habits and learning, the social situation, and stressors.

scholarly journals Influence of Commensal Microbiota on the Enteric Nervous System and Its Role in Neurodegenerative Diseases

2018 ◽  
Vol 10 (3) ◽  
pp. 172-180 ◽  
Author(s):  
Kristina Endres ◽  
Karl-Herbert Schäfer
Keyword(s):  
Nervous System ◽  
Neurodegenerative Diseases ◽  
Enteric Nervous System ◽  
The Other ◽  
Therapeutic Approaches ◽  
Commensal Microbiota ◽  
Open Questions ◽  
Learning Capabilities ◽  
The Central Nervous System ◽  
Parkinson Diseases

When thinking about neurodegenerative diseases, the first symptoms that come to mind are loss of memory and learning capabilities, which all resemble hallmarks of manifestation of such diseases in the central nervous system (CNS). However, the gut comprises the largest nervous system outside the CNS that is autonomously active and in close interplay with its microbiota. Therefore, the enteric nervous system (ENS) might serve as an indicator of degenerative pathomechanisms that also affect the CNS. On the other hand, it might offer an entry point for devastating influences from the microbial community or – conversely – for therapeutic approaches via gut commensals. Within the last years, the ENS and gut microbiota therefore have sparked the interest of researchers of CNS diseases and we here report on recent findings and open questions, especially with regard to Alzheimer and Parkinson diseases.

scholarly journals You Talking to Me? Says the Enteric Nervous System (ENS) to the Microbe. How Intestinal Microbes Interact with the ENS

2020 ◽  
Vol 9 (11) ◽  
pp. 3705
Author(s):  
Mauro Giuffrè ◽  
Rita Moretti ◽  
Giuseppina Campisciano ◽  
Alexandre Barcelos Morais da Silveira ◽  
Vincenzo Maria Monda ◽  
...  
Keyword(s):  
Central Nervous System ◽  
Nervous System ◽  
Enteric Nervous System ◽  
Pathogenic Bacteria ◽  
Current Knowledge ◽  
Intestinal Microbes ◽  
The Central Nervous System ◽  
Gut Microorganisms ◽  
Future Concepts ◽  
Suitable Environment

Mammalian organisms form intimate interfaces with commensal and pathogenic gut microorganisms. Increasing evidence suggests a close interaction between gut microorganisms and the enteric nervous system (ENS), as the first interface to the central nervous system. Each microorganism can exert a different effect on the ENS, including phenotypical neuronal changes or the induction of chemical transmitters that interact with ENS neurons. Some pathogenic bacteria take advantage of the ENS to create a more suitable environment for their growth or to promote the effects of their toxins. In addition, some commensal bacteria can affect the central nervous system (CNS) by locally interacting with the ENS. From the current knowledge emerges an interesting field that may shape future concepts on the pathogen–host synergic interaction. The aim of this narrative review is to report the current findings regarding the inter-relationships between bacteria, viruses, and parasites and the ENS.

scholarly journals Prion Diseases and the Gastrointestinal Tract

2006 ◽  
Vol 20 (1) ◽  
pp. 18-24 ◽  
Author(s):  
Gwynivere A Davies ◽  
Adam R Bryant ◽  
John D Reynolds ◽  
Frank R Jirik ◽  
Keith A Sharkey
Keyword(s):  
Nervous System ◽  
Dendritic Cells ◽  
Enteric Nervous System ◽  
Prion Protein ◽  
Cellular Prion Protein ◽  
Transmissible Spongiform Encephalopathies ◽  
Spongiform Encephalopathy ◽  
Gi Tract ◽  
Spongiform Encephalopathies ◽  
The Brain

The gastrointestinal (GI) tract plays a central role in the pathogenesis of transmissible spongiform encephalopathies. These are human and animal diseases that include bovine spongiform encephalopathy, scrapie and Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease. They are uniformly fatal neurological diseases, which are characterized by ataxia and vacuolation in the central nervous system. Alhough they are known to be caused by the conversion of normal cellular prion protein to its infectious conformational isoform (PrPsc) the process by which this isoform is propagated and transported to the brain remains poorly understood. M cells, dendritic cells and possibly enteroendocrine cells are important in the movement of infectious prions across the GI epithelium. From there, PrPscpropagation requires B lymphocytes, dendritic cells and follicular dendritic cells of Peyer’s patches. The early accumulation of the disease-causing agent in the plexuses of the enteric nervous system supports the contention that the autonomic nervous system is important in disease transmission. This is further supported by the presence of PrPscin the ganglia of the parasympathetic and sympathetic nerves that innervate the GI tract. Additionally, the lymphoreticular system has been implicated as the route of transmission from the gut to the brain. Although normal cellular prion protein is found in the enteric nervous system, its role has not been characterized. Further research is required to understand how the cellular components of the gut wall interact to propagate and transmit infectious prions to develop potential therapies that may prevent the progression of transmissible spongiform encephalopathies.

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