Abstract
Blastic plasmacytoid dendritic cell neoplasm (BPDCN) is an aggressive malignancy thought to result from transformation of plasmacytoid dendritic cells (pDCs). Clinical outcomes are poor and pathogenesis is unclear. To better understand BPDCN genomics and disease mechanisms, we performed whole exome- (12 BPDCNs), targeted DNA- (additional 12 BPDCNs), bulk whole transcriptome RNA- (12 BPDCNs and 6 BPDCN patient-derived xenografts [PDXs]), and single cell RNA-sequencing (scRNA-seq) compared to normal DCs. We observed RNA splicing factor mutations in 16/24 cases (7 ZRSR2, 6 SRSF2, 1 each SF3B1, U2AF1, SF3A2, SF3B4). Additional recurrent alterations were in genes known to be mutated in other blood cancers: TET2, ASXL1, TP53, GNB1, NRAS, IDH2, ETV6, DNMT3A, and RUNX1. From exome sequencing we also discovered recurrent mutations in CRIPAK (6/12 cases), NEFH (4/12), HNF1A (2/12), PAX3 (2/12), and SSC5D (2/12) that may be unique to BPDCN. ZRSR2 is notable among the recurrently mutated splicing factors in hematologic malignancies in that all mutations are loss-of-function (e.g., nonsense, frameshift). Of note, BPDCN is very male predominant, ZRSR2 is located on chrX and all mutations are in males. ZRSR2 plays a critical role in "minor" or U12-type intron splicing (only 0.3% of all introns). Thus, we hypothesized that mis-splicing, possibly of U12 genes, contributes to BPDCN pathogenesis. Using RNA-seq, we measured aberrant splicing in BPDCN. Intron retention was the most frequent abnormality in ZRSR2 mutant BPDCNs and PDXs compared to non-mutant cases. ZRSR2 mutant intron retention predominantly affected U12 introns (patients: 29.4% of retained introns, P<0.0001; PDX: 94%, P<0.0001). To test if ZRSR2 loss directly causes U12 intron retention in otherwise isogenic cells, we performed ZRSR2 knockdown using doxycycline-inducible shRNAs in the BPDCN cell line, CAL1, which has no known splicing factor mutation. RNA-seq was performed 0, 2, and 7 days after addition of doxycycline in 3 independent clones each of control or ZRSR2 knockdown. Consistent with what we observed in primary BPDCN, intron retention events were higher in ZRSR2 compared to control shRNA cells after 7 days of doxycycline (mean 885.7 vs 122.7 events, P=0.041). Aberrant intron retention after ZRSR2 knockdown largely involved U12 introns (30/732 U12 vs 37/207,344 U2 introns, P<0.0001). SRSF2 and SF3B1 mutations in BPDCN were at hotspots seen in other cancers: SRSF2 P95H/L/R and SF3B1 K666N, mutants that induce specific types of aberrant splicing (Kim, Ca Cell 2015; Darman, Cell Rep 2015). Mutant BPDCNs demonstrated the same aberrations: SRSF2, exon inclusion/exclusion based on CCNG/GGNG exonic splicing enhancer motifs; SF3B1, aberrant 3' splice site recognition. We hypothesized that aberrant splicing may affect RNAs important for pDC development or function. To further define genes uniquely important in BPDCN, we performed scRNA-seq on 4 BPDCNs and on DCs from healthy donors. By principal component analysis, BPDCNs were more similar to pDCs than to conventional DCs (cDCs) or other HLA-DR+ cells. However, several critical genes for pDC function had markedly lower expression in BPDCN including the transcription factors IRF4 and IRF7. Next we determined which genes were commonly mis-spliced in splicing factor mutant BPDCNs. Strikingly, this list included genes already known to be important in driving DC biology or identified in our scRNA-seq as being differentially expressed between BPDCN and healthy pDCs, including IRF7, IRF8, IKZF1, FLT3, and DERL3. To determine if splicing factor mutations affect DC function, we stimulated ZRSR2 knockdown or control CAL1 cells with Toll-like receptor (TLR) 7, 8, and 9 agonists (R848 or CpG oligo). ZRSR2 knockdown inhibited upregulation of the CD80 costimulatory molecule and aggregation of CAL1 cells, suggesting impairment in activation. Using mouse conditional knock-in bone marrow in ex vivo multipotent progenitor assays, DC differentiation induced by FLT3 ligand was biased toward pDCs and away from cDCs in SRSF2 P95H mutant compared to wild-type cells. However, cDC and monocyte differentiation in the presence of GM-CSF was not affected. In conclusion, splicing factors are frequently mutated in BPDCN and lead to specific splicing defects. Splicing factor mutations may promote BPDCN by affecting pathways important in DC maturation or activation, which could contribute to transformation.
Disclosures
Seiler: H3 Biomedicine: Employment. Buonamici:H3 Biomedicine: Employment. Lane:Stemline Therapeutics: Research Funding; N-of-1: Consultancy.
Regulation of RNA Splicing: Aberrant Splicing Regulation and Therapeutic Targets in Cancer