ABSTRACT
Influenza virus is an RNA virus encapsulated in a lipid bilayer derived from the host cell plasma membrane. Previous studies showed that influenza virus infection depends on cellular lipids, including the sphingolipids sphingomyelin and sphingosine. Here we examined the role of a third sphingolipid, glucosylceramide, in influenza virus infection following clustered regularly interspaced short palindromic repeats with Cas9 (CRISPR-Cas9)-mediated knockout (KO) of its metabolizing enzyme glucosylceramidase (GBA). After confirming GBA knockout of HEK 293 and A549 cells by both Western blotting and lipid mass spectrometry, we observed diminished infection in both KO cell lines by a PR8 (H1N1) green fluorescent protein (GFP) reporter virus. We further showed that the reduction in infection correlated with impaired influenza virus trafficking to late endosomes and hence with fusion and entry. To examine whether GBA is required for other enveloped viruses, we compared the results seen with entry mediated by the glycoproteins of Ebola virus, influenza virus, vesicular stomatitis virus (VSV), and measles virus in GBA knockout cells. Entry inhibition was relatively robust for Ebola virus and influenza virus, modest for VSV, and mild for measles virus, suggesting a greater role for viruses that enter cells by fusing with late endosomes. As the virus studies suggested a general role for GBA along the endocytic pathway, we tested that hypothesis and found that trafficking of epidermal growth factor (EGF) to late endosomes and degradation of its receptor were impaired in GBA knockout cells. Collectively, our findings suggest that GBA is critically important for endocytic trafficking of viruses as well as of cellular cargos, including growth factor receptors. Modulation of glucosylceramide levels may therefore represent a novel accompaniment to strategies to antagonize “late-penetrating” viruses, including influenza virus.
IMPORTANCE Influenza virus is the pathogen responsible for the second largest pandemic in human history. A better understanding of how influenza virus enters host cells may lead to the development of more-efficacious therapies against emerging strains of the virus. Here we show that the glycosphingolipid metabolizing enzyme glucosylceramidase is required for optimal influenza virus trafficking to late endosomes and for consequent fusion, entry, and infection. We also provide evidence that promotion of influenza virus entry by glucosylceramidase extends to other endosome-entering viruses and is due to a general requirement for this enzyme, and hence for optimal levels of glucosylceramide, for efficient trafficking of endogenous cargos, such as the epidermal growth factor (EGF) receptor, along the endocytic pathway. This work therefore has implications for the basic process of endocytosis as well as for pathogenic processes, including virus entry and Gaucher disease.
Insulin-Like Growth Factor 1 Regulates Acute Inflammatory Lung Injury Mediated by Influenza Virus Infection