Reinforcement in inflection classes: Two cues may be better than one

2014 ◽  
Vol 7 (2) ◽  
pp. 153-181 ◽  
Author(s):  
Hans-Olav Enger
Keyword(s):  
Morphological Change ◽  
Geographical Distribution ◽  
Morphological Structure ◽  
Morphological Properties ◽  
Specific Change ◽  
Definition Of ◽  
Better Than

The paper presents examples of inflection class reinforcement, where an inflection class becomes more different from its neighbours than it was. This is a manifestation of a diachronic tendency for more overt marking, similar to Kuryłowicz’ first law for analogy. It is also a manifestation of redundancy, which is characteristic of inflection. If inflection classes do not serve any purpose (as claimed by, for example, Wurzel 1986 ), it would seem strange that they should be strengthened. So, classes are not mere junk; reinforcement of class distinctions (polarisation) testifies to the autonomy of morphology (cf., for example, Aronoff 1994 , Carstairs-McCarthy 2010 , Maiden 2011 ). A change in Swedish conjugation is argued to be reinforcement. We consider a case where declension wins over gender in Norwegian, the opposite of what has been claimed to be the norm for that language. That case is also reinforcement. I suggest that reinforcement may be thought of as a kind of simplification. That also fits with the geographical distribution of a specific change. The paper also presents some evidence that a fairly ‘concrete’ definition of inflection classes can sometimes be useful. Inflection classes often latch on to extra-morphological properties in the cases examined, as claimed by Natural Morphology ( Wurzel 1984 ). Yet it is problematic for Wurzel that inflection classes (mere ‘ballast’, in his view, Wurzel 1986 : 76) should be strengthened. The finding is, however, expected if ‘[…] autonomously morphological structure […] can be a dynamic, self-reinforcing factor in morphological change’ ( Maiden 2005 : 168).

Resolution and measurement in the scanning electron microscope

1987 ◽  
Vol 45 ◽  
pp. 534-537 ◽  
Author(s):  
Michael T. Postek
Keyword(s):  
Electron Microscope ◽  
Scanning Electron Microscope ◽  
Engineering Design ◽  
Resolving Power ◽  
Practical Applications ◽  
Instrument Resolution ◽  
Accurate Definition ◽  
Definition Of ◽  
Scanning Electron ◽  
Better Than

The term ultimate resolution or resolving power is the very best performance that can be obtained from a scanning electron microscope (SEM) given the optimum instrumental conditions and sample. However, as it relates to SEM users, the conventional definitions of this figure are ambiguous. The numbers quoted for the resolution of an instrument are not only theoretically derived, but are also verified through the direct measurement of images on micrographs. However, the samples commonly used for this purpose are specifically optimized for the measurement of instrument resolution and are most often not typical of the sample used in practical applications.SEM RESOLUTION. Some instruments resolve better than others either due to engineering design or other reasons. There is no definitively accurate definition of how to quantify instrument resolution and its measurement in the SEM.

Dowry Payments and the Irish Case

1984 ◽  
Vol 26 (2) ◽  
pp. 280-296 ◽  
Author(s):  
Richard Breen
Keyword(s):  
Geographical Distribution ◽  
Small Community ◽  
Irish Case ◽  
Beaufort County ◽  
Definition Of ◽  
The Relationship

In this essay I propose to examine an hypothesis about dowry payments in the light of certain evidence from Ireland. The sources of this evidence are, first, my own data collected during fieldwork in the small community of Beaufort, County Kerry, Ireland, and, second, the work of writers who have studied the question of dowry payment in Ireland, notably Conrad M. Arensberg, Solon T. Kimball, and K. H. Connell. The intent here is to draw attention to some of the deficiencies in Jack Goody's definition and discussion of dowry payments, and to offer alternatives to them. In particular I shall argue that Goody's discussion of dowry is centrally flawed by a discrepancy between the generality of the variables he uses to explain the geographical distribution of the practice, and the specificity of his definition of it. It is the unwarranted detail involved in the latter that leads him to obscure certain crucial variations within dowry systems more broadly defined, and to confuse the issue of the relationship between dowry and bride wealth.

scholarly journals An orthogonal terrain-following coordinate and its preliminary tests using 2-D idealized advection experiments

2014 ◽  
Vol 7 (4) ◽  
pp. 1767-1778 ◽  
Author(s):  
Y. Li ◽  
B. Wang ◽  
D. Wang ◽  
J. Li ◽  
L. Dong
Keyword(s):  
Rotation Angle ◽  
Computational Grids ◽  
Time Step ◽  
Numerical Errors ◽  
Terrain Following ◽  
Steep Terrain ◽  
Definition Of ◽  
Σ Coordinate ◽  
Basis Vectors ◽  
Better Than

Abstract. We have designed an orthogonal curvilinear terrain-following coordinate (the orthogonal σ coordinate, or the OS coordinate) to reduce the advection errors in the classic σ coordinate. First, we rotate the basis vectors of the z coordinate in a specific way in order to obtain the orthogonal, terrain-following basis vectors of the OS coordinate, and then add a rotation parameter b to each rotation angle to create the smoother vertical levels of the OS coordinate with increasing height. Second, we solve the corresponding definition of each OS coordinate through its basis vectors; and then solve the 3-D coordinate surfaces of the OS coordinate numerically, therefore the computational grids created by the OS coordinate are not exactly orthogonal and its orthogonality is dependent on the accuracy of a numerical method. Third, through choosing a proper b, we can significantly smooth the vertical levels of the OS coordinate over a steep terrain, and, more importantly, we can create the orthogonal, terrain-following computational grids in the vertical through the orthogonal basis vectors of the OS coordinate, which can reduce the advection errors better than the corresponding hybrid σ coordinate. However, the convergence of the grid lines in the OS coordinate over orography restricts the time step and increases the numerical errors. We demonstrate the advantages and the drawbacks of the OS coordinate relative to the hybrid σ coordinate using two sets of 2-D linear advection experiments.

scholarly journals 2D IPO's for Constant Speed Lines, Curves, NURBS

2019 ◽  
Author(s):  
Valere Huypens
Keyword(s):  
Major Axis ◽  
Pulse Method ◽  
Constant Speed ◽  
Sampled Data ◽  
Reference Pulse ◽  
Production Manager ◽  
Definition Of ◽  
The Right ◽  
2D And 3D ◽  
Better Than

<div>Current constant speed IPO's, usually, use Sampled-data IPO's and constant speed lines use the </div><div>wrong initialized software DDA-ipo's, which make these IPO's unusable. The Bresenham- and </div><div>midpoint IPO's are non-constant speed reference pulse IPO's with bounded inaccuracy.</div><div>By adding an ultra-fast 3-lines algorithm "PRM-cs" to the actual midpoint or Bresenham algorithms, </div><div>we convert these midpoint-ipo's to very fast, constant speed, reference pulse IPO's. </div><div>This applies to 2D-lines, 3D-lines, 2D-curves and 2D-NURBS.</div><div>The PRM-cs measures, in real-time, the length of the discrete curve and the PRM-cs is completely new. </div><div>We define the best IPO, the major axis principle and the LSD-priority. </div><div>The major axis principle holds for the actual 3D-line IPO's. These IPO's are, generally, inaccurate, </div><div>but they can be updated to constant speed 3D-line IPO's, when the production manager agrees.</div><div>The Digital Geometric Geometry (DAG) defines the discrete lines globally, but this global </div><div>definition of a discrete 3D-line, gives discrete 3D-lines whose accuracy is much less than the </div><div>accuracy of the best discrete 3D-lines (e.g. 37% worse).</div><div>We describe the three causes of the inaccurate (imperfect) discrete 3D-lines. </div><div>All existing pulse-rate or PRM-ipo's use a wrong initialization, which deteriorates the accuracy. </div><div>We determine the right initialization for the new PRM-cs and the updated PRM-ipo. </div><div>We propose the benchmark-ipo "listSIM-ipo". This constant speed IPO can, also, be used in real-</div><div>time for every 2D- and 3D-curve. </div><div>The 3rd-degree Trident NURB shows that the constant speed reference pulse method is much </div><div>better than the existing sampled-data methods.</div>

Morphological Means in Russian: Clarification of the Concept

2021 ◽  
Vol 20 (9) ◽  
pp. 23-33
Author(s):  
Galina I. Panova ◽  
Tatiana V. Viktorina ◽  
Antonina E. Kuzmina
Keyword(s):  
Word Order ◽  
Morphological Structure ◽  
Russian Language ◽  
Word Form ◽  
Similar Function ◽  
Word Forms ◽  
The Status ◽  
Definition Of ◽  
Linguistic Units ◽  
The Russian Language

The concept of “morphological / grammatical means” is widely used in studies on the Russian language, although there is no generally accepted interpretation. This work analyzes the reflection of this concept in Russian studies and clarifies the status of those linguistic units that are traditionally referred to as morphological means: form-building affixes, alternating sounds (internal inflection), stress, supplementary word stems, auxiliary words, intonation, as well as word order. Our research has shown that these linguistic units have different functional status in the morphological structure of the Russian language. First, these are categorical, or actually morphological, means, represented by formative affixes and auxiliary words. They are carriers of morphological meanings in the structure of abstracted morphological forms – the basic units of inflectional Russian morphology. Secondly, a non-categorical means, syncretic and accidental for morphology, are supplementary stems that contain not only lexical, but also morphological meaning and thus duplicate the expression of morphological information in a word form with a form-building affix. Thirdly, these are linguistic units that are not elements of the morphological structure, but have morphological significance, which is manifested in their ability to differentiate homonymous morphological forms in the structure of word forms (alternating sounds and stress) or utterances (intonation). Word order can also perform a similar function. The study allows us to clarify the definition of the concept under consideration: morphological means are linguistic units that are carriers of morphological meanings and constituents of morphological forms.

Opportunities to use historical comments in teaching morphology

2021 ◽  
Vol 66 (05) ◽  
pp. 45-48
Author(s):  
Tərlan Əliş qızı Əliyeva ◽  
Keyword(s):  
Key Words ◽  
Historical Memory ◽  
Morphological Structure ◽  
Modern State ◽  
Young Generation ◽  
Ancient History ◽  
Correct Definition ◽  
History Of ◽  
Definition Of ◽  
Rich History

Our language reflects the historical memory, traditions, ethnic and moral views of our people and so on. it is our invaluable spiritual wealth that always lives in us. One of the main tasks of the Azerbaijani language is to educate the young generation in the spirit of love for our national and spiritual resources, ancient history, loyalty to our people and, most importantly, knowledge of the subtleties of the language, using these inexhaustible opportunities. When using historical comments as a tool in the process of teaching the morphology of the Azerbaijani language in the acquisition of grammatical forms regulated by a number of intra-linguistic and extra-linguistic events that are difficult to comprehend, students gain more information about the morphological structure of our language. The use of historical comments in Azerbaijani language lessons should be done systematically. The advantages of referring to its ancient and rich history in the study of the modern state of language are reflected in the correct definition of the morphological structure of the language. We can even point out the importance of commenting on the history of writing in the teaching of the alphabet. In the process of teaching morphology, we can note the importance of commentary in the deep mastery of individual speech senses. The study of morphological features of the Azerbaijani language is based on the principle of history. Because the goal is to instill in today's young generation some information about the history of our language. Key words: Azerbaijani language, morphology, history, modern state of language, derivations, word creation, suffixes, historical commentary

Graded Causation and Normality

2016 ◽  
Author(s):  
Joseph Y. Halpern
Keyword(s):  
Recent Work ◽  
Experimental Philosophy ◽  
Actual Causation ◽  
Definition Of ◽  
Better Than

Recent work in psychology and experimental philosophy has shown that judgments of actual causation are often influenced by consideration of defaults, typicality, and normality. This chapter shows the definition of causality introduced in Chapter 2 can be extended to defaults, typicality, and normality into account. The resulting framework takes actual causation to be both graded and comparative. Thus, it allows us to say that one cause is better than another. Examples showing the power of the approach are considered.

Conclusion

2017 ◽  
Keyword(s):  
National Identity ◽  
Geographical Distribution ◽  
Crucial Role ◽  
Large Scale ◽  
Small Scale ◽  
Modern History ◽  
Late Modernity ◽  
History Of ◽  
Definition Of

This chapter extends the book’s insights about nature, technology, and nation to the larger history of the modern period. While the modern nation loses its grip as a locus of identity and analysis, attempts to understand the operation, disruption, and collapse of continental and global infrastructures continue to mix the natural and the machinic in ways that define them both. Those vulnerabilities emphasize large-scale catastrophe; historiographically, they mask the crucial role of small-scale failures in the experience and culture of late modernity, including its definition of nature. Historical actors turned the uneven geographical distribution of small-scale failures into a marker of distinctive local natures and an element of regional and national identity. Attending to those failures helps not only situate cold-war technologies in the larger modern history of natural and machinic orders; it helps provincialize the superpowers by casting problematic “other” natures as central and primary.

Review of the genus Phormidesmis (Cyanobacteria) based on environmental, morphological, and molecular data with description of a new genus Leptodesmis

Phytotaxa ◽  
2019 ◽  
Vol 395 (1) ◽  
pp. 1-16 ◽  
Author(s):  
LENKA RAABOVÁ ◽  
LUBOMIR KOVACIK ◽  
JOSEF ELSTER ◽  
OTAKAR STRUNECKÝ
Keyword(s):  
Molecular Data ◽  
Morphological Properties ◽  
Phylogenetic Position ◽  
Rrna Gene ◽  
Filamentous Cyanobacteria ◽  
Wide Range ◽  
Significant Divergence ◽  
Taxonomic Methods ◽  
Morphological And Molecular Data ◽  
Definition Of

Very thin filamentous cyanobacteria are ubiquitous in a wide range of environments. For many years they were traditionally studied according to their morphological properties only. With the introduction of additional taxonomic methods (cytomorphological analyses, molecular sequencing, exact ecological studies, better data about phytogeographical distribution), traditional genera such as Leptolyngbya and Phormidium were found to be polyphyletic. Phormidesmis belonged to a newly formed genus that was supposed to explain the variability of such very thin simple filamentous cyanobacteria. However, even after definition of Phormidesmis based on distinct cytomorphological and phylogenetic traits, the variability within this genus remained unresolved. Here we analyzed 26 Phormidesmis strains to describe the variability within this genus, classified two new species (P. arctica and P. communis) and transferred Leptolyngbya nigrescens into P. nigrescens. A tabular review of Phormidesmis species is included. The diacritical features of all these species are: width up to 1–4 µm, barrel-shaped cells, which can be shorter or slightly longer than wide, with apparent constrictions at the cross-walls. Our study shows that Phormidesmis is a morphologically and genetically well-defined genus with a global distribution. A newly described genus Leptodesmis has significant morphological similarities both with Phormidesmis and Leptolyngbya, however with intermediate phylogenetic position with significant divergence in 16S rRNA gene. Leptodesmis is cryptic both to Phormidesmis and Leptolyngbya. In the initial part of the life cycle resembles Leptolyngbya, the appearance of older trichomes change to Phormidesmis like morphology.

Sensitivity of children's inflection to grammatical structure

1994 ◽  
Vol 21 (1) ◽  
pp. 173-209 ◽  
Author(s):  
John J. Kim ◽  
Gary F. Marcus ◽  
Steven Pinker ◽  
Michelle Hollander ◽  
Marie Coppola
Keyword(s):  
Morphological Structure ◽  
Default Rule ◽  
Grammatical Structure ◽  
Tree Structures ◽  
Phonological Features ◽  
Ambiguity Reduction ◽  
Irregular Verbs ◽  
Complex Words ◽  
The City ◽  
Better Than

ABSTRACTWhat is the input to the mental System that computes inflected forms likewalked, came, dogs, andmen? Recent connectionist models feed a word's phonological features into a single network, allowing it to generalize both regular and irregular phonological patterns, likestop-stopped, step-steppedandfling-flung, cling-clung. But for adults, phonological input is insufficient: verbs derived from nouns likering the cityalways have regular past tense forms (ringed), even if they are phonologically identical to irregular verbs (ring the bell). Similarly, nouns based on names, liketwo Mickey Mouses, and compounds based on possessing rather than being their root morpheme, such astwo sabertooths, take regular plurals, even when they are homophonous with irregular nouns likemiceandteeth. In four experiments, testing 70 three- to ten-year-old children, we found that children are sensitive to such nonphonological information: they were more likely to produce regular inflected forms for forms liketo ring(‘to put a ring on’) andsnaggletooth(a kind of animal doll with big teeth) than for their homophonous irregular counterparts, even when these counterparts were also extended in meaning. Children's inflectional Systems thus seem to be like adults': irregular forms are tied to the lexicon but regular forms are computed by a default rule, and words are represented as morphological tree structures reflecting their derivation from basic word roots. Such structures, which determine how novel complex words are derived and interpreted, also govern whether words with irregular sound patterns will be regularized: a word can be irregular only if its structure contains an irregular root in ‘head’ position, allowing the lexically stored irregular information to percolate up to apply to the word as a whole. In all other cases, the inflected form is computed by a default regular rule. This proposal fits the facts better than alternatives appealing to ambiguity reduction or semantic similarity to a word's central sense. The results, together with an analysis of adult speech to children, suggest that morphological structure and a distinction between mechanisms for regular and irregular inflection may be inherent to the design of children's language Systems.

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