scholarly journals Evolution of epidemiological thought in medicine taking into account the evolution of Polish epidemiology in the 20th century

2020 ◽  
pp. 169-179
Author(s):  
Renata E. Paliga
Keyword(s):  
20Th Century ◽  
19Th Century ◽  
18Th Century ◽  
The United States ◽  
Epidemiological Studies ◽  
Population Based ◽  
Communicable Diseases ◽  
Non Communicable Diseases ◽  
Administrative Services ◽  
The 19Th Century

Communicable diseases have accompanied humanity since the beginning of its existence. The first descriptions of diseases appeared in the 8th century B.C. in the Iliad, Homer. Epidemics of communicable diseases were often described in social context by poets, historians, and chroniclers. Medicine as a science until the 19th century could not provide answers concerning the aetiology of epidemic diseases or propose therapies with measurable benefits. For centuries the fight against epidemics was the duty of administrative services. Quarantine, isolation (including forced isolation), sanitary cordons, and disinfection procedures involving the moxibustion, burning of objects, clothing and bodies, etc. were introduced very early on. The knowledge of practical measures taken during repeated epidemics of various communicable diseases in Europe laid the foundations for the development of social medicine in the 18th century. In the 19th century, methods such as statistics, comparison of patient groups, mathematics and others were introduced to assess the effectiveness of prophylactic and therapeutic measures. In the 19th century it became possible to distinguish a new science – epidemiology. The missing element was the so-called “bacteriological breakthrough”. After the discovery and description of bacteria, there was a tumultuous development of bacteriology, vaccines were created and huge financial resources were allocated to bacteriological institutes. After extensive use of chemotherapeutics and antibiotics, it turned out in the mid-20th century that the mortality from communicable diseasesis statistically lower in some countries than in others.In the 1940s, population-based cardiological studies using epidemiological patterns were introduced in the United States, and in the 1950s epidemiological congresses worldwide accepted that it was reasonable for epidemiology to investigate the occurrence and causes of communicable and non-communicable diseases. In Poland, in 1964, at the 4th Congress of the Polish Society of Epidemiologists and Doctors of Infectious Diseases in Cracow, a decision was made to extend epidemiological studies to non-communicable diseases.

Classical Architecture in Europe and North America since 1700

Classics ◽  
2018 ◽  
Author(s):  
Elizabeth Macaulay-Lewis
Keyword(s):  
United States ◽  
20Th Century ◽  
19Th Century ◽  
18Th Century ◽  
The United States ◽  
Classical Antiquity ◽  
Early 20Th Century ◽  
Classical Architecture ◽  
Greco Roman ◽  
The 19Th Century

Since the Western Roman Empire collapsed, classical, or Greco-Roman, architecture has served as a model to articulate the cultural, artistic, political, and ideological goals of later civilizations, empires, nations, and individuals. The Renaissance marked the first major, widespread re-engagement with classical antiquity in art, literature, and architecture. Debates over classical antiquity and its relation to the modern world continued ever since. One such important debate was that of the quarrel between the Ancients and Moderns, which resulted when Charles Perrault published his Parallèles des anciens et des modernes in 1688. This dispute focused on whether the modern age could surpass antiquity, especially in literature. The Greco-Roman controversy (1750s and 1760s) was another example of Europeans engaging with the classical past; this debate focused on whether Greek or Roman art was of greater historical value; an argument has continued unabated to this day. Figures like Johann Joachim Winckelmann argued (in publications such as Winckelmann 1764, cited under Early Archaeological Publications on Greece and Classical Ruins in the Roman East, on Greek art) for the supremacy of Greek forms, while others like Giovanni Battista Piranesi (whose 1748–1778 views of Rome are reproduced in Ficacci 2011, cited under Early Archaeological Publications on Italy) advocated for Rome’s preeminence. Such debates demonstrate how classical antiquity was an essential part of the intellectual and artistic milieu of 18th-century Europe. This bibliography focuses on the appropriation of classical architecture in the creation of built forms from 1700 to the present in Europe and North America, which is typically called neoclassical or neo-classical, both of which are acceptable. Scholars often define the neoclassical period as lasting from c. 1750 to 1830, when European art and architecture predominantly appropriated classical forms and ideas. The influence of classical architecture continued in popularity throughout the 19th century and early 20th century in the United States. The early 19th century saw the flourishing of the Greek Revival, where Greek forms dominated artistic and architectural production, both in Europe and the United States. The ascendance of Queen Victoria in 1837 marked a shift toward a preference for the Gothic and Medieval forms. Neoclassical forms saw a resurgence in the second half of the 19th century, as Roman architectural forms became increasingly popular as an expression of empire. The term “Neo-classical” was coined as early as January 1872 by Robert Kerr, who used the term positively. It later took on certain negative overtones, when it was used as a derogatory epithet by an unknown writer in the Times of London in 1892. Neoclassical architecture has fared no better with the rise of modernism in the early 20th century onward and since then it has been seen as old-fashioned and derivative. Neoclassical architecture was not a mindless imitation of classical architectural forms and interiors. The interest in classical architecture and the creation of neoclassical architecture was spurred on by important archaeological discoveries in the mid-18th century, which widened the perception of Greek and Roman buildings. The remarkable flexibility of ancient architecture to embody the grandeur of an empire, as well as the principles of a nascent democracy, meant that it had great potential to be interpreted and reinterpreted by countless architects, patrons, empires, and nation states—in different ways and at different times from the 18th to the 20th century. This bibliography is organized thematically (e.g., General Overviews; Companions, Handbooks, and Theoretical Works; Reference Works; Early General Archaeological Publications; The Reception of Pompeii, Herculaneum, and the Bay of Naples; and World’s Fairs and Expositions) and then geographically, creating country- or region-specific bibliographies. While this model of organization has some flaws, it aims to avoid repetition and highlights the interconnected nature and process of the reception of classical architecture in later periods.

General Introduction

2010 ◽  
pp. 1-21
Author(s):  
Farley Simon Nobre ◽  
Andrew M. Tobias ◽  
David S. Walker
Keyword(s):  
United States ◽  
20Th Century ◽  
19Th Century ◽  
United States Of America ◽  
Organization Theory ◽  
Industrial Revolution ◽  
18Th Century ◽  
The United States ◽  
Scientific Methods ◽  
The 19Th Century

The practice of organizing is ancient, but formal study of organizations is relatively new. The search for knowledge on organizations through scientific methods of investigation has received increasing attention since the beginning of the 20th century. Such investigations have found enough maturity and formality to constitute a new discipline known today as organization theory. Principles of organizations evolved with ancient and medieval civilizations, and developed and matured after the Industrial Revolution in Europe in the 18th century and latterly in the United States of America in the 19th century. Such a transformation flourished gradually after the apogee of the Renaissance in Europe which was marked by a period of revolution in thinking, supported by religious, economic, social and political changes (Wren, 1987).

Origine et diffusion des expressions romanes du type jaune paille

2021 ◽  
Vol 133 (1) ◽  
pp. 3-27
Author(s):  
Sara Matrisciano ◽  
Franz Rainer
Keyword(s):  
20Th Century ◽  
19Th Century ◽  
18Th Century ◽  
17Th Century ◽  
16Th Century ◽  
Romance Languages ◽  
Short Discussion ◽  
Colour Term ◽  
The 19Th Century ◽  
And Diffusion

All major Romance languages have patterns of the type jaune paille for expressing shades of colour represented by some prototypical object. The first constituent of this pattern is a colour term, while the second one designates a prototypical representative of the colour shade. The present paper starts with a short discussion of the controversial grammatical status of this pattern and its constituents. Its main aim, however, concerns the origin and diffusion of this pattern. We have not found hard and fast evidence that Medieval Italian pigment compounds of the type verderame influenced the rise of the jaune paille pattern, which first appears in French in the 16th century. This pattern continued to be a minority solution during the 17th century, but established itself during the 18th century. In the 19th century, Italian, Spanish and Portuguese adopted the pattern jaune paille, while it did not reach Catalan and Romanian before the 20th century.

scholarly journals Considerations to some forms of the verb a fi: sum and sunt

Diacronia ◽  
2018 ◽  
Author(s):  
Gheorghe Chivu
Keyword(s):  
20Th Century ◽  
19Th Century ◽  
18Th Century ◽  
History Of ◽  
Literary Writing ◽  
The 19Th Century

The history of the verbal forms sum and sunt, introduced into the literary writing by the Transylvanian Latinist School, reveals a winding process in the elaboration of certain cultured norms proper to the modern literary Romanian. Not at all linear, this process was concurrently influenced by two, often divergent, tendencies that were active from the end of the 18th century up to the beginning of the 20th century: the use of some cultured forms, borrowed from Latin or created according to Latin patterns; and the revitalization of certain linguistic forms with regional diffusion. Initially proposed as literary pronunciations, the two verbal forms were soon adopted and used as etymological graphic forms that corresponded to sîm and suntu from certain conservative patois. During the second half of the 19th century (sum), and during the first decades of the 20th century (sunt), the two graphic forms became orthoepic norms as well, due to the phonological tradition of the Romanian writing.

British Detective Fiction in the 19th and Early 20th Centuries

2017 ◽  
Author(s):  
Anne Humpherys
Keyword(s):  
20Th Century ◽  
19Th Century ◽  
Short Story ◽  
Detective Fiction ◽  
The United States ◽  
Sherlock Holmes ◽  
Auguste Dupin ◽  
Agatha Christie ◽  
The 19Th Century ◽  
Critical Interest

From ancient Greece on, fictional narratives have entailed deciphering mystery. Sophocles’ Oedipus must solve the mystery of the plague decimating Thebes; the play is a dramatization of how he ultimately “detects” the culprit responsible for the plague, who turns out to be Oedipus himself. In the Poetics, Aristotle defines a successful plot as one that has a conflict (which can include, and often does include, a “mystery”) that rises to a climax, followed by a resolution of the conflict, a plot line that describes not only Oedipus Rex but also every Sherlock Holmes story. A particular genre of mystery writing is defined by the mystery at the center of the story that is crucially, definitively solved by a particular person known as a detective, either private or police, who by ratiocination (close observation coupled with logical patterns of thought based on material evidence) uncovers and sorts out the relevant facts essential to a determination of who did the crime and how and why. The form of detective fiction throughout most of the 19th century was the short story published in various periodicals of the period. A few longer detective fictions were published as separate books in the 19th century, but book-length detective fiction, such as that by Agatha Christie, was really a product of the 20th century. Most critics of detective fiction see the beginning of the genre in the three stories of Edgar Allan Poe which feature his amateur detective, Auguste Dupin, and were published in the 1840s. Although Poe’s 1840s stories as well as Arthur Conan Doyle’s Sherlock Holmes stories, which first appeared in the 1880s, are probably the most well known of 19th-century detective fictions, a number of other writers of generically recognizable detective fiction published stories in the almost fifty years between Poe and Conan Doyle, including a number that featured female detectives. Finally, from the 1890s into the early 20th century, a plethora of new detective fictions, still in short-story form for the most part, appeared not only in Britain but also in France and the United States. Detective fiction has always been popular, but serious critical interest in the genre only developed in the 20th century. In the second half of that century, this critical interest expanded into the academic world. The popularity of the genre has only continued to grow. Both detective fictions (now nearly all novel length) and critical interest in the genre from a variety of perspectives are now an international phenomenon, and detective novels dominate many best-seller lists.

scholarly journals Formation and Development of the Iconography of the Mesmeric Seance in the Second Half of the 18th — Late 19th Centuries

2021 ◽  
Vol 11 (2) ◽  
pp. 224-242
Author(s):  
Daria O. Martynova ◽  
◽  
Keyword(s):  
Popular Culture ◽  
20Th Century ◽  
19Th Century ◽  
18Th Century ◽  
Comic Book ◽  
Wonder Woman ◽  
Patriarchal Society ◽  
The Face ◽  
The 19Th Century ◽  
Second Wave

Analyzing the evolution of the iconography of such a phenomenon as mesmerism in the second half of the 18th — mid-19th centuries, the author shows that the scenario of modern hypnotic representation and its gestures were established by mesmerists in the second half of the 18th century, followers of the parascientific theory that caused discussions and intrigued doctors and artists for centuries. Analyzing the development of the iconography of mesmeric seance, the author identifies two waves of popularity of this subject: the first wave in the 70–80s of the 18th century and the second wave during the first decade of the 19th century and beginning of the 20th century. Such a duration is due to the fascination with the supernatural and inexplicable, reflected in various styles and trends. In this article, the author tries to show how the development of the iconography of the mesmeric seance provoked the appearance of the hypnotist or magician trickster, who became integrated into popular culture that later began to mark the majority of hypnotic actions, spiritualistic sessions or miracle shows. The author also illustrates how the image of a “controller” in the face of a man formed and confirmed the paradigm of a powerless, mysterious and controlled woman. As a result, it is concluded that hypnosis and mesmerism became common theatrical spectacles in the 20th century, cultivating the power of men (patriarchal society) over an exhausted woman, which is reflected in the works of Georges Méliès, Alfred Hitchcock, and even in the comic book Wonder woman.

Havana

2020 ◽  
Author(s):  
Guadalupe García
Keyword(s):  
20Th Century ◽  
19Th Century ◽  
Urban History ◽  
Urban Population ◽  
The United States ◽  
Early 20Th Century ◽  
Publication Date ◽  
History Of ◽  
The 19Th Century ◽  
The City

The Cuban city of San Cristóbal de la Habana has been a nodal point of economic, commercial, political, and cultural exchange since its 1519 founding on Cuba’s northern shore. Residents’ decision to locate the city next to the natural deepwater harbor that became today’s harbor, illustrates the importance of geography, space, and environment in Havana’s early history. Through the distinct environs of Havana, enslaved, free black, Spanish, immigrant, criollo (and later Cuban) residents defined and gave new meaning to a geography marked by the city’s colonial origins. The end of the 19th century and early 20th century marked the end of Spanish colonialism in Cuba (1898) and the beginning of the US occupation of the island (1899–1902). The political transition solidified the importance of Havana as the economic and political center of Cuba. The city became a broker of a new set of cultural, social, and political exchanges as the country’s economic prosperity—the result of an affinity for US and global capitalist markets—also inaugurated a booming and pervasive tourist economy. Western influence and a neocolonial relationship between Cuba and the United States engendered an urban renaissance that emphasized cosmopolitanism and a dynamic, highly mobile urban population. Havana’s built environment oriented residents and visitors alike to its modern architecture, seaside resorts, and dynamic nightlife. The city’s concentration of wealth, however, underscored continued disparities between Cuba’s urban and rural populations as well as within sectors of the urban population. There is a well-developed body of scholarship that addresses the complicated history of the city, especially for the colonial period and the early 20th century. Until recently, there was a scarcity of literature on the city following the revolutionary transition of 1959. This changed, however, with the onset of the 1980s. In 1982 UNESCO declared the colonial core city of Havana a World Heritage Site. Urban renewal and preservation became topics of scholarly discussions around administrative efforts to preserve, restore, and orient the direction of the city. Then, in the early 1990s, urban development in Havana (like all development in Cuba) come to an immediate halt after the dissolution of the USSR ended Soviet subsidies and precipitated one of the worst economic disasters in Cuban history. The country’s political and economic situation and the liberalization of the economy and the growth of tourism brought an ever-increasing interest in the issues and environment of the city, with scholars taking up the now familiar themes of access to the city, political inclusion and exclusion, and urban patrimony in their scholarship. As a field of study the literature on Havana mirrors the frameworks found in the broader field of urban history. The literature breaks down into two distinct subfields; those studies that examine “the history of the city” and those that examine “histories that unfold within cities” (See Brodwyn Fisher’s article Urban History in Oxford Bibliographies). The former has long dominated the literature on Havana, and only recently has new scholarship begun to approach the city as a subject in its own right or from the vantage points of disciplinary perspectives outside of history, architecture, and planning. In this essay I have chosen to introduce readers to the vast literature that centers explicitly on the development of the city, much of which was published in Cuba from the 19th century onward. This literature forms part of a well-known cannon in Cuba (including work in the Spanish-language press produced outside of the island) but might be lesser known to non-specialists. I have also included well-established, as well as recent and emerging, works where Havana assumes a central role in the narrative. I have done this in order to broaden the categorical analysis of what constitutes a history of or about Havana. As with any bibliographic essay, I have excluded much in order to provide an overview of Havana and familiarize readers with scholars who explore thematic interests in questions of race, slavery, or culture through the social fabric of the city. Where appropriate, I have organized the essay according to time period or publication date (in order to give the reader an idea of the scholarship on colonial architecture, for example). Finally, most titles on this list can easily be placed in more than one of the categories listed in the Table of Contents; for the sake of space I have cross-listed only a few of these works, but indicated when readers might find other sections of the essay useful.

British Antislavery and West Africa

2021 ◽  
Author(s):  
Padraic Scanlan
Keyword(s):  
Sierra Leone ◽  
19Th Century ◽  
Black People ◽  
Slave Trade ◽  
18Th Century ◽  
The United States ◽  
Transatlantic Slave Trade ◽  
Christian Teaching ◽  
Slave Ships ◽  
The 19Th Century

Resistance to slavery within African societies was as complex and heterogeneous as slavery itself. For enslaved Africans and their descendants taken by force to Europe’s colonies in the Americas, antislavery was an existential struggle. Among European states, Britain was among the first imperial powers to pass laws abolishing its slave trade (in 1807) and slavery in its colonies (in 1833). Antislavery was a transnational phenomenon, but Britain made suppressing the Atlantic slave trade an element of its foreign policy, employing a Royal Navy squadron to search for slave ships, pressing African leaders to sign anti-slave-trade treaties as a condition of trade and coordinating an international network of anti-slave-trade courts. And yet, for many leading British abolitionists, “Africa” was an ideological sandbox—an imagined blank space for speculation and experiment on the development of human societies and the progress of “civilization.” In the 18th century, early British critics of the transatlantic slave trade argued that “Africa” presented an unparalleled commercial and imperial opportunity. Although the slave trade—and the plantations in the Americas that slave ships supplied with labor—were profitable, some argued that slave-trading regions could, with enough investment, produce goods and commodities that would be many times more lucrative. Moreover, if Britain were the first European power to abolish the slave trade, it might also be among the first to gain a territorial foothold on African soil. Over time, these arguments coalesced into the concept of “legitimate commerce.” A combination of Christian teaching, slave-trade suppression, and commercial incentives would persuade slave-trading polities to give up the practice and instead produce other goods. Legitimate commerce intertwined with a theory of civilization that held that any society that enslaved people was so degenerate in its social development that nearly any reform or intervention was justifiable. By the end of the 19th century, antislavery became a justification for European conquest. There were at least three broad reform projects launched by British officials and merchants in Africa in the name of antislavery. First, drawing on critiques of the slave trade from the 18th century that emphasized the commercial potential of legitimate commerce, antislavery activists and politicians argued for replacing the slave trade with new kinds of export-oriented commerce. Second, in two colonies, Sierra Leone and Liberia, Britain and the United States experimented with the possibility of using Black people from the African diaspora as settlers and missionaries. In Sierra Leone, more than seventy thousand people, usually known as “Liberated Africans,” were repatriated from slave ships into the small colony. Third, in the mid-19th century, as the transatlantic slave trade declined, Britain and other European powers invested heavily in African plantation agriculture, particularly in cotton and palm oil monocrops.

Utopia and Reality: An Image of the United States in Russian Liberal and Radical Publications (End of the 19th to the Beginning of the 20th Century)

Prospects ◽  
1999 ◽  
Vol 24 ◽  
pp. 491-520
Author(s):  
Dmitry Shlapentokh
Keyword(s):  
United States ◽  
20Th Century ◽  
19Th Century ◽  
Political Thought ◽  
The United States ◽  
The West ◽  
The 19Th Century ◽  
Modern Russian

In the 19th century, some Russian intellectuals concluded that democracy was the country's probable future. By the middle of the century, this eventually led to the West and its democratic traditions being directly linked to images of Utopia. From that date forward, this approach to the West has had a central role in modern Russian political thought.

scholarly journals A late-winter to early-spring temperature reconstruction for southeastern Norway from 1758 to 2006

2007 ◽  
Vol 46 ◽  
pp. 404-408 ◽  
Author(s):  
Ø. Nordli ◽  
E. Lundstad ◽  
A.E.J. Ogilvie
Keyword(s):  
20Th Century ◽  
19Th Century ◽  
18Th Century ◽  
Temperature Reconstruction ◽  
Early Spring ◽  
Late Winter ◽  
Spring Temperature ◽  
Early 19Th Century ◽  
The Mean ◽  
The 19Th Century

AbstractSystematic temperature observations were not undertaken in Norway until the early 19th century, and even then only sporadically. Climate-proxy data may be used to reconstruct temperatures before this period, but until now there have not been any climate proxies available for late winter. This situation has recently changed, as a diary containing historical ice break-up data from a farm near lake Randsfjord in southeastern Norway has been discovered. These data, together with observations from lake Mjøsa in the same region, make it possible to reconstruct temperature back to 1758. The reconstructed series, combined with instrumental series from the area near the lake, were merged into one composite time series covering the period 1758–2006. The lowest temperatures are seen during the Dalton sunspot minimum in the early 19th century. The 20th century was 1.3˚C warmer than the 19th century, whereas the 19th century was 0.4˚C warmer than the last 43 years of the 18th century. During the period 1758–1850, the mean temperature was 1.4˚C lower than the mean value of the 20th century. The warmth observed in the 1990s and at the start of the 21st century is unprecedented during the whole series.

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