scholarly journals The Levels Of Biological Organization: How The Body Is Organized

2017 ◽  
Author(s):  
Daniel Nelson
Keyword(s):  
The Body ◽  
Biological Organization

scholarly journals New insights into the evolutionary rate of HIV-1 at the within-host and epidemiological levels

2012 ◽  
Vol 279 (1741) ◽  
pp. 3367-3375 ◽  
Author(s):  
Katrina A. Lythgoe ◽  
Christophe Fraser
Keyword(s):  
Immune Escape ◽  
Population Level ◽  
The Body ◽  
Biological Organization ◽  
Calendar Time ◽  
Adaptive Mutations ◽  
Preferential Transmission ◽  
Ancestral Virus ◽  
Hiv 1 ◽  
Major Target

Over calendar time, HIV-1 evolves considerably faster within individuals than it does at the epidemic level. This is a surprising observation since, from basic population genetic theory, we would expect the genetic substitution rate to be similar across different levels of biological organization. Three different mechanisms could potentially cause the observed mismatch in phylogenetic rates of divergence: temporal changes in selection pressure during the course of infection; frequent reversion of adaptive mutations after transmission; and the storage of the virus in the body followed by the preferential transmission of stored ancestral virus. We evaluate each of these mechanisms to determine whether they are likely to make a major contribution to the mismatch in phylogenetic rates. We conclude that the cycling of the virus through very long-lived memory CD4 + T cells, a process that we call ‘store and retrieve’, is probably the major contributing factor to the rate mismatch. The preferential transmission of ancestral virus needs to be integrated into evolutionary models if we are to accurately predict the evolution of immune escape, drug resistance and virulence in HIV-1 at the population level. Moreover, early infection viruses should be the major target for vaccine design, because these are the viral strains primarily involved in transmission.

scholarly journals INNOVATIVE TECHNOLOGY OF PRODUCTION OF FERMENTED MILK DRINKS FOR NUTRITION ELDERLY PEOPLE

2020 ◽  
pp. 65-74
Author(s):  
Alla Solomon ◽  
Yurii Polievoda
Keyword(s):  
Raw Materials ◽  
The Elderly ◽  
Fermented Milk ◽  
Point Of View ◽  
The Body ◽  
Biologically Active ◽  
Partial Replacement ◽  
Innovative Technology ◽  
Biological Organization ◽  
Food Taking

At present, the problem of rational nutrition for the elderly is extremely urgent, since every fourth Ukrainian is a retiree by age. Rationally built nutrition for such people contributes to the better functioning of all important organs and systems, increases the level of the body's protective response to adverse environmental factors. Various ways to improve the product to give it a herodetic orientation are offered. According to the concept of balanced nutrition, the structure of the diet of an aging person and its energy value should be correlated with the functional state of the enzyme systems responsible for the assimilation of food, taking into account the physiological needs of the body for nutrients and energy, according to age and health, which is especially important for seniors and seniors. From the point of view of gerontology and old age hygiene, such trends in society dictate the need for accurate and deep knowledge of aging processes at all levels of biological organization, from molecular to holistic organism in order to develop a nutritional diet that promotes aging, preventing aging lifestyle. The need for rational nutrition of the elderly puts forward the task of creating an assortment of products nutritionally adequate to the specifics of their nutrition, taking into account the most common pathologies. In the production of hereditary products, the most appropriate is the partial replacement of traditional raw materials with non-traditional, the introduction of dietary and biologically-active additives, the use of secondary raw materials and non-traditional vegetable (medicinal plants, berry syrups, vegetable oils). This makes it possible to create balanced for all criteria products for the elderly, whose production takes into account all age characteristics.

scholarly journals Human Development VII: A Spiral Fractal Model of Fine Structure of Physical Energy Could Explain Central Aspects of Biological Information, Biological Organization and Biological Creativity

2006 ◽  
Vol 6 ◽  
pp. 1434-1440 ◽  
Author(s):  
Søren Ventegodt ◽  
Tyge Dahl Hermansen ◽  
Trine Flensborg-Madsen ◽  
Erik Rald ◽  
Maj Lyck Nielsen ◽  
...  
Keyword(s):  
Native American ◽  
Fractal Model ◽  
The Body ◽  
Biological Information ◽  
Biological Organization ◽  
Living Organisms ◽  
Definition Of ◽  
Definition Of Information ◽  
The Universe ◽  
Informational System

In this paper we have made a draft of a physical fractal essence of the universe, a sketch of a new cosmology, which we believe to lay at the root of our new holistic biological paradigm. We present the fractal roomy spiraled structures and the energy-rich dancing “infinite strings” or lines of the universe that our hypothesis is based upon. The geometric language of this cosmology is symbolic and both pre-mathematical and pre-philosophical. The symbols are both text and figures, and using these we step by step explain the new model that at least to some extent is able to explain the complex informational system behind morphogenesis, ontogenesis, regeneration and healing. We suggest that it is from this highly dynamic spiraled structure that organization of cells, organs, and the wholeness of the human being including consciousness emerge. The model of ““dancing fractal spirals” carries many similarities to premodern cultures descriptions of the energy of the life and universe. Examples are the Native American shamanistic descriptions of their perception of energy and the old Indian Yogis descriptions of the life-energy within the body and outside. Similar ideas of energy and matter are found in the modern superstring theories. The model of the informational system of the organism gives new meaning to Bateson’s definition of information: “A difference that makes a difference”, and indicates how information-directed self-organization can exist on high structural levels in living organisms, giving birth to their subjectivity and consciousness.

Can molecular biology propose reliable biomarkers for diagnosing major depression?

2020 ◽  
Vol 26 ◽  
Author(s):  
Nikolay N. Ivanets ◽  
Andrey A. Svistunov ◽  
Vladimir N. Chubarev ◽  
Marina A. Kinkulkina ◽  
Yuliya G. Tikhonova ◽  
...  
Keyword(s):  
Molecular Biology ◽  
Genome Wide Association Study ◽  
The Body ◽  
Published Data ◽  
Epigenetic Factors ◽  
Biological Organization ◽  
Trigger Mechanism ◽  
Homogeneous Groups ◽  
Genetic Biomarkers ◽  
Different Types

Background: Modern medicine has gained considerable knowledge of the pathophysiology of mental disorders at the body, systemic, organ and neurochemical levels of the biological organization of the body. Modern clinical diagnostic of depression has some problem. That is why psychiatric Society to make diagnostics and taxonomy of different types of depression by implemention modern molecular biomarkers in diagnostic procedures. But up to now there were no reliable biomarkers of major depressive disorder (MDD) and other types of depression. Objective: The purpose of this review is to find fundamentals in pathological mechanisms of depression, which could be a basis for development molecular and genetic biomarkers the most feasible for clinic. Method: This review summarizes the published data using PubMed, Science Direct, Google Scholar and Scopus. Results: In this review, we summarized and discussed findings in molecular biology, genetics, neuroplasticity, neurotransmitters, neuroimaging that could increase our understanding of biological foundations of depression and show new directions for development reliable biomarkers. We didn’t find no molecular and genetic biomarkers approved for clinic. But Genome-Wide Association Study method promises some progress in development biomarkers based on SNP in the future. Epigenetic factors also are a promising target for biomarkers. We have found some differences in etiology of different type of atypical and melancholic depression. This knowledge could be the basis for development biomarkers for clinical practice in diagnosis, prognosis and selection of treatment. Conclusion: Depression is not monoetiological disease. Many pathological mechanisms involved in depression, thus up to now there is no approved and reliable biomarker for diagnosis, prognosis and correction of treatment of depression. Structural and functional complexity of the brain, the lack of invasive technology, poor correlations between genetic and clinical manifestation of depression, imperfect psychiatric classification and taxonomy of subtypes of disease are the main causes of this situation . One of the possible way to come over this situation can be to pay attention to the trigger mechanism of disease and its subtypes. Researchers and clinicians should focus their efforts on searching trigger mechanism of depression and different types of it . HPA axis can be a candidate for such trigger in depression caused by stress, because it influences to the main branches of disease: neuroinflammation, activity of biogenic amines, oxidative and nitrozative stress, epigenetic factors, metabolomics etc. But before we shall find any trigger mechanism, we need to create complex biomarker reflecting genetic, epigenetic, metabolomics and other pathological changes in different types of depression. Recently the most encouraging results have been obtained from genetics and neuroimaging. Continuing research in these areas should be forced by using computational , statistical and systems biology approaches, which can allow to get more knowledge about neurobiology of depression. In order to obtain clinically useful tests search for biomarkers should use appropriate research methodologies with increasing samples and identifying more homogeneous groups of depressed patients.

Representing utility and deploying the body

2020 ◽  
Vol 43 ◽  
Author(s):  
David Spurrett
Keyword(s):  
Functional Activity ◽  
Degrees Of Freedom ◽  
The Body ◽  
Target Article ◽  
Processing Demands ◽  
The Many

Abstract Comprehensive accounts of resource-rational attempts to maximise utility shouldn't ignore the demands of constructing utility representations. This can be onerous when, as in humans, there are many rewarding modalities. Another thing best not ignored is the processing demands of making functional activity out of the many degrees of freedom of a body. The target article is almost silent on both.

Introduction to Cell Membranes at Molecular Resolution

1978 ◽  
Vol 36 (3) ◽  
pp. 497-502
Author(s):  
R.J. Barrnett
Keyword(s):  
Cell Membranes ◽  
International Federation ◽  
Mountain Range ◽  
Cellular Membranes ◽  
Short History ◽  
Biological Organization ◽  
Macromolecular Assemblies ◽  
The Past

This subject, is like observing the panorama of a mountain range, magnificent towering peaks, but it doesn't take much duration of observation to recognize that they are still in the process of formation. The mountains consist of approaches, materials and methods and the rocky substance of information has accumulated to such a degree that I find myself concentrating on the foothills in the foreground in order to keep up with the advance; the edifices behind form a wonderous, substantive background. It's a short history for such an accumulation and much of it has been moved by the members of the societies that make up this International Federation. My panel of speakers are here to provide what we hope is an interesting scientific fare, based on the fact that there is a continuum of biological organization from biochemical molecules through macromolecular assemblies and cellular membranes to the cell itself. Indeed, this fact explains the whole range of towering peaks that have emerged progressively during the past 25 years.

Neuron-glia relationship during the early postembryonic development of the nervous system in some oligochaetes

1978 ◽  
Vol 36 (2) ◽  
pp. 600-601
Author(s):  
Wiktor Djaczenko ◽  
Carmen Calenda Cimmino
Keyword(s):  
Nervous System ◽  
Glial Cells ◽  
Early Period ◽  
Postembryonic Development ◽  
Ruthenium Red ◽  
The Body ◽  
Tubifex Tubifex ◽  
Growth Stages ◽  
Cell Processes ◽  
Cytoplasmic Processes

The simplicity of the developing nervous system of oligochaetes makes of it an excellent model for the study of the relationships between glia and neurons. In the present communication we describe the relationships between glia and neurons in the early periods of post-embryonic development in some species of oligochaetes.Tubifex tubifex (Mull. ) and Octolasium complanatum (Dugès) specimens starting from 0. 3 mm of body length were collected from laboratory cultures divided into three groups each group fixed separately by one of the following methods: (a) 4% glutaraldehyde and 1% acrolein fixation followed by osmium tetroxide, (b) TAPO technique, (c) ruthenium red method.Our observations concern the early period of the postembryonic development of the nervous system in oligochaetes. During this period neurons occupy fixed positions in the body the only observable change being the increase in volume of their perikaryons. Perikaryons of glial cells were located at some distance from neurons. Long cytoplasmic processes of glial cells tended to approach the neurons. The superimposed contours of glial cell processes designed from electron micrographs, taken at the same magnification, typical for five successive growth stages of the nervous system of Octolasium complanatum are shown in Fig. 1. Neuron is designed symbolically to facilitate the understanding of the kinetics of the growth process.

Flagellar Attachment in Selected Trypanosomes

1973 ◽  
Vol 31 ◽  
pp. 496-497
Author(s):  
J. J. Paulin
Keyword(s):  
Cell Membrane ◽  
Lateral Surface ◽  
The Body ◽  
Flagellar Pocket ◽  
Integral Component ◽  
Free Flagellum ◽  
Flagellar Axoneme

Movement in epimastigote and trypomastigote stages of trypanosomes is accomplished by planar sinusoidal beating of the anteriorly directed flagellum and associated undulating membrane. The flagellum emerges from a bottle-shaped depression, the flagellar pocket, opening on the lateral surface of the cell. The limiting cell membrane envelopes not only the body of the trypanosome but is continuous with and insheathes the flagellar axoneme forming the undulating membrane. In some species a paraxial rod parallels the axoneme from its point of emergence at the flagellar pocket and is an integral component of the undulating membrane. A portion of the flagellum may extend beyond the anterior apex of the cell as a free flagellum; the length is variable in different species of trypanosomes.

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