Measures of Wing Area and Wing Span from Wing Formula Data

The Auk ◽  
1990 ◽  
Vol 107 (4) ◽  
pp. 784-787 ◽  
Keyword(s):  
Wing Area ◽  
Wing Span

Aerodynamics of Gliding Flight of a Black Vulture Coragyps Atratus

1970 ◽  
Vol 53 (2) ◽  
pp. 363-374 ◽  
Author(s):  
G. CHRISTIAN PARROTT
Keyword(s):  
Wind Tunnel ◽  
Wing Area ◽  
Drag Coefficients ◽  
Wing Span ◽  
Drag Forces ◽  
Gliding Flight ◽  
Black Vulture ◽  
Air Speed

1. A black vulture (mass = 1.79 kg) gliding freely in a wind tunnel adjusted its wing span and wing area as its air speed and glide angle changed from 9.9 to 16.8 m/s and from 4.8° to 7.9°, respectively. 2. The minimum sinking speed was 1.09 m/s at an air speed of 11.3 m/s. 3. The maximum ratio of lift to drag forces was 11.6 at an air speed of 13.9 m/s. 4. Parasite drag coefficients for the vulture are similar to those for conventional airfoils and do not support the contention that black vultures have unusually low values of parasite drag.

Soaring and Gliding Flight of the Black Vulture

1958 ◽  
Vol 35 (2) ◽  
pp. 280-285
Author(s):  
B. G. NEWMAN
Keyword(s):  
Flow Separation ◽  
Angle Of Attack ◽  
High Angle ◽  
High Angle Of Attack ◽  
Wing Area ◽  
Wing Span ◽  
Gliding Flight ◽  
Black Vulture ◽  
Wing Geometry

1. The soaring and gliding performance of the black vulture has been analysed and the following conclusions are drawn. 2. The wing span of the bird is altered in flight so that it may perform two tasks efficiently. First, that it may soar in rising currents of air for which a low sinking speed and thus a large wing span are required. Secondly, that it may penetrate into wind without undue loss of height for which a reduced wing area is desirable. Adjustment of the wing geometry towards the optimum soaring configuration is achieved by bending forward and opening the primary tip feathers. 3. Since the airflow readily separates from the flat primary feathers at high angle of attack, these feathers, which are emarginated, are parted to form slots. The alula also presumably assists in delaying the flow separation over the primaries. 4. It is unlikely that the opening of the primaries reduces the vortex drag.

scholarly journals Predicting Wingbeat Frequency and Wavelength of Birds

1990 ◽  
Vol 150 (1) ◽  
pp. 171-185 ◽  
Author(s):  
C. J. PENNYCUICK
Keyword(s):  
Multiple Regression ◽  
Dimensional Analysis ◽  
Bird Species ◽  
Field Observations ◽  
Wingbeat Frequency ◽  
Wing Area ◽  
Wing Span ◽  
Air Density ◽  
Flight Muscles ◽  
Advance Ratio

Wingbeat frequencies were observed in the field for 32 morphologically diverse bird species, representing 18 families, and ranging in mass from 20 g to nearly 5 kg. A combination of multiple regression and dimensional analysis was used to show that wingbeat frequency (f) may be estimated by: f = 1.08(m1/3g1/2b−1S−1/4p−1/3 where m is the bird's body mass, g is the acceleration due to gravity, b is the wing span, S is the wing area and p is the air density. The predicted wingbeat frequency can be used to estimate the power available from a bird's flight muscles, and an estimate of the power required to fly can be obtained for comparison from the computer programs of Pennycuick (1989a). Field observations of airspeed are given for 30 of the 32 species. These are combined with the observations of wingbeat frequency to estimate wingbeat wavelength, and the ratio of wavelength to wing span, which is closely related to the ‘advance ratio’ as used by Ellington (1984).

Allometry of bat wings and legs and comparison with birds wings

1981 ◽  
Vol 292 (1061) ◽  
pp. 359-398 ◽  
Keyword(s):  
Aspect Ratio ◽  
Foraging Behaviour ◽  
Lower Leg ◽  
Leg Length ◽  
Wing Loading ◽  
Wing Area ◽  
Wing Span ◽  
Geometric Similarity ◽  
Forearm Length ◽  
Vespertilionid Bats

Allometric equations on wing dimensions versus body mass are given for eight species of megabats and 76 species of microbats, on forearm length versus mass for 14 species of mega bats and 90 species of microbats, and on lower leg length versus mass for 11 species of megabats and 45 species of microbats. Megabats have, on average, shorter wing span, small wing area, higher wing loading and lower aspect ratio than have frugivorous microbats and the insectivorous vespertilionids of similar mass. Vespertilionids have the longest span, largest wing area and lowest wing loading in relation to body mass of the bat groups for which regression lines were calculated (megabats, frugivorous microbats, vespertilionids, molossids), characteristics that are important for slow flight and manoeuvrability for insect capture. Molossids have the highest wing loading of the groups. There is a weak tendency towards higher aspect ratio for larger bats than for smaller ones (positive slope). The slopes for most characters fit geometric similarity or have confidence intervals including the value for geometric similarity. Only in three cases does the slope lie nearer that for elastic similarity: for the forearm in nycterids and emballonurids and the lower leg length in molossids. Also in these cases the confidence intervals are wide and include the value for elastic similarity and that for geometric similarity as well. In megabats the slope for the lower leg length is much steeper than for geometric similarity. The slope for the forearm length is rather similar to that for wing span in the various groups. Megabats and frugivorous microbats have rather similar slopes for all the characters measured, but differ from the other groups only in wing area, wing loading and aspect ratio. The two frugivorous bat groups also have about the same elevation of the regression lines for aspect ratio and forearm length. Megabats and frugivorous microbats thus show a close convergence in wing area, wing loading, aspect ratio and forearm length. The regression equations provide ‘norms’ for the respective bat groups. Those species that deviate 10% or more from the mean trends for wing measurements are divided into different groups, based on the wing’s aspect ratio and loading. Bats with low aspect ratio wings usually have large pinnae, which improve the ability to discover small objects such as insects on leaves. Families or species of bats with wings of low aspect ratio are, for instance, Megadermatidae, Nycteridae, Rhinolophus ferrumequinum (Rhinolophidae), Chrotopterus auritus (Phyllostomidae) and Plecotus (Vespertilionidae). The group with average aspect ratio wings contains bats with different kinds of flight style and foraging behaviour, for instance many pteropodids, phyllostomids and vespertilionids. Bats with high aspect ratio wings are, for instance, Molossidae, Rhynchonycteris naso (Emballonuridae) and Nyctalus leisleri (Vespertilionidae). The regression lines for wing span, area and loading in megabats lie almost in the region of the lines for Greenewalt’s (1975) passeriform group, whereas the span and area for vespertilionid bats are larger and the wing loading much smaller than for most birds of similar mass. Molossid bats have a larger relative wing span and aspect ratio than have most birds, and a wing area and loading similar to those of small birds of the passeriform group. Vespertilionid bats have about the same aspect ratio as birds of the passeriform group, whereas megabats have somewhat lower ratios. Molossid bats show strong convergence with swifts and swallows in foraging behaviour and in wing form. Similar convergences can be found between various vespertilionid bats, flycatchers and swallows.

Scaling bat wingbeat frequency and amplitude

2002 ◽  
Vol 205 (17) ◽  
pp. 2615-2626 ◽  
Author(s):  
R. D. Bullen ◽  
N. L. McKenzie
Keyword(s):  
Lower Half ◽  
Flight Speed ◽  
Simple Relationship ◽  
Wingbeat Frequency ◽  
Wing Area ◽  
High Speeds ◽  
Second Mode ◽  
Speed Range

SUMMARYWingbeat frequency (fw) and amplitude(θw) were measured for 23 species of Australian bat,representing two sub-orders and six families. Maximum values were between 4 and 13 Hz for fw, and between 90 and 150° forθ w, depending on the species. Wingbeat frequency for each species was found to vary only slightly with flight speed over the lower half of the speed range. At high speeds, frequency is almost independent of velocity. Wingbeat frequency (Hz) depends on bat mass (m, kg) and flight speed (V, ms-1) according to the equation: fw=5.54-3.068log10m-2.857log10V. This simple relationship applies to both sub-orders and to all six families of bats studied. For 21 of the 23 species, the empirical values were within 1 Hz of the model values. One species, a small molossid, also had a second mode of flight in which fw was up to 3 Hz lower for all flight speeds.The following relationship predicts wingbeat amplitude to within±15° from flight speed and wing area (SREF,m2) at all flight speeds:θ w=56.92+5.18V+16.06log10SREF. This equation is based on data up to and including speeds that require maximum wingbeat amplitude to be sustained. For most species, the maximum wingbeat amplitude was 140°.

Wing Mechanics and Take-Off Preparation of Thrips (Thysanoptera)

1980 ◽  
Vol 85 (1) ◽  
pp. 129-136 ◽  
Author(s):  
C. P. ELLINGTON
Keyword(s):  
Leading Edge ◽  
Morphological Features ◽  
Inertial Forces ◽  
Wing Area ◽  
Trailing Edge ◽  
Lateral Projection ◽  
Parking Problem ◽  
Closed Position ◽  
Open Position ◽  
Fringe System

1. All of the wing fringe cilia of Thrips physapus, except those along the hindwing leading edge, pivot in elongated sockets which lock them into two positions. 2. The wings lie parallel over the abdomen when not in use, with the cilia locked in the closed position at an angle of 15-20° to the wing axis. The closing of the fringes prevents entanglement of the trailing edge cilia and lateral projection of the forewing leading edge cilia. 3. During flight the cilia are locked in the open position, doubling the wing area. The locking force is stronger than the combined aerodynamic and inertial forces on the cilia. 4. The fringes are opened by abdominal combing and closed by tibial combing. 5. The same morphological features are found in other members of the sub-order Terebrantia. Parallel wings at rest are characteristic of this suborder, and the collapsible fringe system is viewed as an effective method for parking the wings. 6. The fringes of the sub-order Tubulifera are not collapsible. The wings overlap on the abdomen at rest and a similar parking problem does not arise.

scholarly journals Disparities in the body, chest, and wing morphometric among three subspecies of local male chickens for genetic breeding

2021 ◽  
Vol 888 (1) ◽  
pp. 012012
Author(s):  
H D Putranto ◽  
Nurmeiliasari ◽  
Y Yumiati ◽  
A M Nur
Keyword(s):  
Developing Countries ◽  
Body Weight ◽  
Food Security ◽  
The Body ◽  
Genetic Breeding ◽  
Wing Span ◽  
Body Weights ◽  
Chest Girth ◽  
Average Body ◽  
Local Chickens

Abstract Local chickens in developing countries, including Indonesia, have great potential to be developed into natural superior breeds to support food security and improve farmer welfare. Meanwhile, the major endemic subspecies found in the Bengkulu province are burgo and kampung chicken, as well as ketarras which are recently bred intensively. Therefore, this study aims to analyze the disparities in the morphometrics of three subspecies of local male chickens specifically on the body weight, length, chest girth and length, as well as wing span. Based on the results, the male burgo chicken morphometrical size was significantly smaller than ketarras, while the ketarras chicken was significantly smaller than kampung (P < 0.05). Furthermore, the average body weights for the burgo, ketarras and kampung chicken were 1.0, 1.2 and 1.9 kg cock-1, respectively, while the average of body length, chest and chest length, as well as wing span were 29.9, 40.0, 47.7 cm cock-1; 26.2, 30.1, 36.3 cm cock-1; 12.6, 17.8, 20.3 cm cock-1, and 34.4, 41.9, 55.9 cm cock-1, respectively. Therefore, it was concluded that the burgo and kampung chicken have the smallest and biggest morphometric sizes respectively.

scholarly journals Interactions between frugivorous bats (Phyllostomidae) and Piper tuberculatum (Piperaceae) in a tropical dry forest remnant in Valle del Cauca, Colombia

2016 ◽  
Vol 64 (2) ◽  
pp. 701 ◽  
Author(s):  
Sebastián Montoya-Bustamante ◽  
Vladimir Rojas-Díaz ◽  
Alba Marina Torres-González
Keyword(s):  
Niche Overlap ◽  
Dry Forest ◽  
The Other ◽  
Leg Length ◽  
Wing Area ◽  
Use Of Resources ◽  
Forest Remnant ◽  
Valle Del Cauca ◽  
Artibeus Lituratus ◽  
The Village

Coexistence of species from a trophic guild depends on the division and use of resources. In any ecosystem, fruits are resources that vary in time and space as well as in nutritional content. Therefore, the organisms that depend on them as a food source tend to show a certain degree of specialization. Understanding the factors that influence the dynamics of seed dispersal is important for the regeneration and conservation of tropical ecosystems. Our aim was to determine variation in consumption of <em>Piper tuberculatum </em>(pipilongo) by the fruit bat assemblages in the village of Robles (Jamundí, Valle del Cauca, Colombia). Pipilongo is a resource used not only by wildlife but also by people in the village of Robles. Bats were captured in mist nets between June and November 2014, their feces were collected, and the length of the forearm, wing area, leg length and weight were recorded. At the Universidad del Valle seed laboratory, fecal samples were washed, and their content determined. Of the 14 species captured, <em>Sturnira lilium, Carollia brevicauda, Carollia perspicillata</em> and <em>Artibeus lituratus</em> showed signs of having consumed <em>P. tuberculatum.</em> <em>Sturnira lilium</em> was the main consumer of <em>P. tuberculatum </em>fruits, with the greatest number of consumption events of fruit from this plant species, whereas the other bats showed more diversified consumption events. The greatest niche overlap was recorded between <em>C. brevicauda</em> and <em>C. perspicillata</em>, species that showed similar sizes (i.e., wing area and forearm length) followed by <em>S. lilium</em> and <em>C. perspicillata. </em>In contrast, <em>A. lituratus</em> showed the least niche overlap with the other three fruit bats captured. In conclusion, <em>Sturnira lilium</em> showed an interaction <em>Sturnira-Piper</em>, which is the result of low <em>Solanum</em> availability, and this bat species was the largest consumer of pipilongo in the region.

scholarly journals Joint regulation of cell size and cell number in the wing blade of Drosophila melanogaster

1997 ◽  
Vol 69 (1) ◽  
pp. 61-68 ◽  
Author(s):  
JENNIE McCABE ◽  
VERNON FRENCH ◽  
LINDA PARTRIDGE
Keyword(s):  
Drosophila Melanogaster ◽  
Significant Negative Correlation ◽  
Cell Number ◽  
Negative Association ◽  
Cell Area ◽  
Wing Area ◽  
Compensatory Control ◽  
Significant Difference ◽  
The Difference ◽  
Compensatory Regulation

We used Drosophila melanogaster to test for compensatory control of cell area and cell number in the regulation of total wing area. In two random bred wild-type base stocks collected from different geographic locations we found a negative association between the area and the number of cells in the wing blade. Three replicate lines were selected for increased or decreased wing area, with cell area maintained at the same level as in the three controls. After eight generations of selection, despite a large and highly significant difference in wing area between the large, control and small selection lines, cell area did not differ significantly between them. Rather, the difference in wing area between selection regimes was attributable to differences in cell number. Over the course of selection, the initially significant negative correlation between cell area and cell number in the wing increased, providing evidence for compensatory regulation of cell area and cell number. As a result of the increasingly negative association between the two traits, the variance in wing area declined as selection proceeded. It will be important to discover the mechanisms underlying the compensatory regulation of cell area and cell number.

Aerodynamics of Gliding Flight in a Falcon and Other Birds

1970 ◽  
Vol 52 (2) ◽  
pp. 345-367 ◽  
Author(s):  
VANCE A. TUCKER ◽  
G. CHRISTIAN PARROTT
Keyword(s):  
Wind Tunnel ◽  
High Performance ◽  
Lift Coefficient ◽  
Aerodynamic Characteristics ◽  
Wing Span ◽  
Technical Errors ◽  
Gliding Flight ◽  
Air Speed ◽  
D Values ◽  
D Value

1. A live laggar falcon (Falco jugger) glided in a wind tunnel at speeds between 6.6 and 15.9 m./sec. The bird had a maximum lift to drag ratio (L/D) of 10 at a speed of 12.5 m./sec. As the falcon increased its air speed at a given glide angle, it reduced its wing span, wing area and lift coefficient. 2. A model aircraft with about the same wingspan as the falcon had a maximum L/D value of 10. 3. Published measurements of the aerodynamic characteristics of gliding birds are summarized by presenting them in a diagram showing air speed, sinking speed and L/D values. Data for a high-performance sailplane are included. The soaring birds had maximum L/D values near 10, or about one quarter that of the sailplane. The birds glided more slowly than the sailplane and had about the same sinking speed. 4. The ‘equivalent parasite area’ method used by aircraft designers to estimate parasite drag was modified for use with gliding birds, and empirical data are presented to provide a means of predicting the gliding performance of a bird in the absence of wind-tunnel tests. 5. The birds in this study had conventional values for parasite drag. Technical errors seem responsible for published claims of unusually low parasite drag values in a vulture. 6. The falcon adjusted its wing span in flight to achieve nearly the maximum possible L/D value over its range of gliding speeds. 7. The maximum terminal speed of the falcon in a vertical dive is estimated to be 100 m./sec.

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