Flake Dispersal Experiments: Noncultural Transformation of the Archaeological Record

1983 ◽  
Vol 48 (3) ◽  
pp. 553-572 ◽  
Author(s):  
Peter M. Bowers ◽  
Robson Bonnichsen ◽  
David M. Hoch
Keyword(s):  
Human Activity ◽  
Time Lapse ◽  
Primary Factor ◽  
Frost Heave ◽  
The Arctic ◽  
Archaeological Sites ◽  
Archaeological Record ◽  
Alaska Range ◽  
Natural Processes ◽  
Present Test

Time lapse studies of frost action effects on arctic and subarctic surficial archaeological sites have been conducted from 1973 to the present. Test plots of experimentally produced flakes were constructed in 1973 in the Tangle Lakes Region of the Central Alaska Range and subsequently remapped and photographed in 1974, 1976, and 1980. Similar test plots were laid out in the arctic foothills province of the Brooks Range. Observations made during the study period include: (1) flake displacements of as much as 20 cm/yr; (2) average minimum movement is 4 cm/yr; and (3) upslope movements were observed, suggesting that slope is not the primary factor in flake displacements. Frost heave, needle ice and, possibly, wind appear to be the dominant forces responsible for dispersals. It is argued that these and other natural processes can restructure the archaeological record into patterns that easily can be mistaken for those produced by human activity.

Soil Genesis and Site-Formation Processes

2004 ◽  
Author(s):  
Vance T. Holliday
Keyword(s):  
Soil Formation ◽  
Archaeological Site ◽  
Site Formation ◽  
Archaeological Sites ◽  
Site Formation Processes ◽  
Formation Processes ◽  
Archaeological Record ◽  
Natural Processes ◽  
Natural Formation ◽  
Pedogenic Processes

Pedogenic processes that produce or alter the soils associated with a landscape (buried or unburied) also modify the archaeological sites and other traces of human activity associated with that landscape and buried landscapes. The wide range of processes that form soils can profoundly affect the archaeological record. Pedogenesis, therefore, is an important component of the processes of archaeological site formation. Archaeological “site-formation processes” are those processes that modify artifacts and archaeological sites from the moment they were formed until they are uncovered by archaeologists (Stein, 2001b, pp. 37–38). Understanding formation processes is crucial in archaeology because archaeologists use the patterns of artifacts in the ground to infer behaviors. Formation processes identify patterns that are created by ancient behaviors and separate those patterns from the ones created by later cultural and natural processes (Stein, 2001b, p. 37). In his influential volume Formation Processes of the Archaeological Record, Schiffer (1987, p. 7) notes that archaeologists try to infer past behavior based on the archaeological record, but the record “must be handled with great care by the investigator seeking to infer past behaviors, for the evidence that survives has been changed in many ways by a variety of processes.” These processes introduce variability and ambiguity into the archaeological record. Schiffer (1987, p. 7) further distinguishes between cultural processes, in which the agency of transformation is human behavior, and noncultural processes, which stem from processes of the natural environment. Natural formation processes are many and varied and include plants, animals, wind, water, ice, and gravity, among others. Soil formation is also identified as an important process of site formation. Schiffer (1987) provides a comprehensive discussion of natural site-formation processes, which are summarized by Stein (2001b). Nash and Petraglia (1987) and Goldberg et al. (1993) also provide a number of case histories of natural formation processes identified at archaeological sites. Because soil formation represents the alteration of rock and sediment (chapter 1), pedogenic processes are important natural processes in the formation of archaeological sites. Other weathering processes that are significant in site formation can be grouped as “diagenetic alterations.”

scholarly journals A systematic review of natural processes in creating pierced shells: implications for the archaeological record

2016 ◽  
Author(s):  
Anna Maria Kubicka ◽  
Zuzanna M Rosin ◽  
Piotr Tryjanowski ◽  
Emma Nelson
Keyword(s):  
Systematic Review ◽  
Anthropogenic Factors ◽  
Archaeological Sites ◽  
Archaeological Record ◽  
Natural Processes ◽  
Online Databases ◽  
Yield Information ◽  
Scientific Papers ◽  
Shell Beads ◽  
Almost All

Background. The shells of molluscs survive well in most sedimentary contexts and yield information about the diet of prehistoric humans. They also yield evidence of symbolic behaviours, through their use as beads for body adornments. Researchers often analyse the location of perforations in shells to make judgements about their use as symbolic objects (i.e., beads), the assumption being, that holes attributable to deliberate human behaviour are more likely to exhibit low variability in their anatomical locations, while holes attributable to natural processes yield more random perforations. However, there are non-anthropogenic factors that can cause perforations in shells and these may not be random. The aim of the study is to look at the association between variation of holes in shell beads from archaeological sites and shells pierced by natural (non-human) processes. Methods. Two hundred and sixty scientific papers retrieved from online databases by using keywords, (e.g., ‘shell beads’; ‘pierced shells’); 77 of these publications enabled us to conduct a systematic review and assess the location of the hole in the shell beads in the published articles. Results. Almost all archaeological sites described shells beads with holes in a variety of anatomical locations. High variation of hole-placement was also found within the same species from the same site, as well as among sites. In contrast, predators were more specific in where they attacked molluscs; birds often select the thinnest part of the shell, while molluscs and cephalopods target thicker parts. Discussion. These results indicate that variation in hole-location on shells pierced by humans is greater than variation in the placement of holes created by natural processes. Consequently, these patterns are opposite to those expected. We also found that Gastropod and Bivalve predators choose similar hole locations to humans. Research into human shell-beads recovered from archaeological contexts should take into account non-anthropogenic factors, which can lead to more realistic scenarios of the cultural behaviours of prehistoric people.

scholarly journals A systematic review of animal predation creating pierced shells: implications for the archaeological record of the Old World

PeerJ ◽  
2017 ◽  
Vol 5 ◽  
pp. e2903 ◽  
Author(s):  
Anna Maria Kubicka ◽  
Zuzanna M. Rosin ◽  
Piotr Tryjanowski ◽  
Emma Nelson
Keyword(s):  
Systematic Review ◽  
Anthropogenic Factors ◽  
Archaeological Sites ◽  
Archaeological Record ◽  
Old World ◽  
Natural Processes ◽  
Online Databases ◽  
Yield Information ◽  
Scientific Papers ◽  
Almost All

BackgroundThe shells of molluscs survive well in many sedimentary contexts and yield information about the diet of prehistoric humans. They also yield evidence of symbolic behaviours through their use as beads for body adornments. Researchers often analyse the location of perforations in shells to make judgements about their use as symbolic objects (e.g., beads), the assumption being that holes attributable to deliberate human behaviour are more likely to exhibit low variability in their anatomical locations, while holes attributable to natural processes yield more random perforations. However, there are non-anthropogenic factors that can cause perforations in shells and these may not be random. The aim of the study is compare the variation in holes in shells from archaeological sites from the Old World with the variation of holes in shells pierced by mollusc predators.MethodsThree hundred and sixteen scientific papers were retrieved from online databases by using keywords, (e.g., ‘shell beads’; ‘pierced shells’; ‘drilling predators’); 79 of these publications enabled us to conduct a systematic review to qualitatively assess the location of the holes in the shells described in the published articles. In turn, 54 publications were used to assess the location of the holes in the shells made by non-human predators.ResultsAlmost all archaeological sites described shells with holes in a variety of anatomical locations. High variation of hole-placement was found within the same species from the same site, as well as among sites. These results contrast with research on predatory molluscs, which tend to be more specific in where they attacked their prey. Gastropod and bivalve predators choose similar hole locations to humans.DiscussionBased on figures in the analysed articles, variation in hole-location on pierced shells from archaeological sites was similar to variation in the placement of holes created by non-human animals. Importantly, we found that some predators choose similar hole locations to humans. We discuss these findings and identify factors researchers might want to consider when interpreting shells recovered from archaeological contexts.

scholarly journals A systematic review of natural processes in creating pierced shells: implications for the archaeological record

2016 ◽  
Author(s):  
Anna Maria Kubicka ◽  
Zuzanna M Rosin ◽  
Piotr Tryjanowski ◽  
Emma Nelson
Keyword(s):  
Systematic Review ◽  
Anthropogenic Factors ◽  
Archaeological Sites ◽  
Archaeological Record ◽  
Natural Processes ◽  
Online Databases ◽  
Yield Information ◽  
Scientific Papers ◽  
Shell Beads ◽  
Almost All

Background. The shells of molluscs survive well in most sedimentary contexts and yield information about the diet of prehistoric humans. They also yield evidence of symbolic behaviours, through their use as beads for body adornments. Researchers often analyse the location of perforations in shells to make judgements about their use as symbolic objects (i.e., beads), the assumption being, that holes attributable to deliberate human behaviour are more likely to exhibit low variability in their anatomical locations, while holes attributable to natural processes yield more random perforations. However, there are non-anthropogenic factors that can cause perforations in shells and these may not be random. The aim of the study is to look at the association between variation of holes in shell beads from archaeological sites and shells pierced by natural (non-human) processes. Methods. Two hundred and sixty scientific papers retrieved from online databases by using keywords, (e.g., ‘shell beads’; ‘pierced shells’); 77 of these publications enabled us to conduct a systematic review and assess the location of the hole in the shell beads in the published articles. Results. Almost all archaeological sites described shells beads with holes in a variety of anatomical locations. High variation of hole-placement was also found within the same species from the same site, as well as among sites. In contrast, predators were more specific in where they attacked molluscs; birds often select the thinnest part of the shell, while molluscs and cephalopods target thicker parts. Discussion. These results indicate that variation in hole-location on shells pierced by humans is greater than variation in the placement of holes created by natural processes. Consequently, these patterns are opposite to those expected. We also found that Gastropod and Bivalve predators choose similar hole locations to humans. Research into human shell-beads recovered from archaeological contexts should take into account non-anthropogenic factors, which can lead to more realistic scenarios of the cultural behaviours of prehistoric people.

Loom weights in Archaic South Italy and Sicily: Fice case studies

2015 ◽  
Vol 8 ◽  
pp. 123-155
Author(s):  
Hedvig Landenius Enegren
Keyword(s):  
Case Studies ◽  
Indigenous Peoples ◽  
Environmental Conditions ◽  
Experimental Archaeology ◽  
Archaeological Sites ◽  
Site Specificity ◽  
Archaeological Record ◽  
South Italy ◽  
Local Traditions ◽  
Tool Technology

Textiles are perishables in the archaeological record unless specific environmental conditions are met. Fortunately, the textile tools used in their manufacture can provide a wealth of information and via experimental archaeology make visible to an extent what has been lost. The article presents and discusses the results obtained in a research project focused on textile tool technologies and identities in the context of settler and indigenous peoples, at select archaeological sites in South Italy and Sicily in the Archaic and Early Classical periods, with an emphasis on loom weights. Despite a common functional tool technology, the examined loom weights reveal an intriguing inter-site specificity, which, it is argued, is the result of hybrid expressions embedded in local traditions. Experimental archaeology testing is applied in the interpretation of the functional qualities of this common artefact.

scholarly journals Predicting wildfire impacts on the prehistoric archaeological record of the Jemez Mountains, New Mexico, USA

Fire Ecology ◽  
2021 ◽  
Vol 17 (1) ◽  
Author(s):  
Megan M. Friggens ◽  
Rachel A. Loehman ◽  
Connie I. Constan ◽  
Rebekah R. Kneifel
Keyword(s):  
New Mexico ◽  
Fire Severity ◽  
Fire Effects ◽  
Burn Severity ◽  
Fire Season ◽  
Archaeological Sites ◽  
Archaeological Record ◽  
Human Environment ◽  
Jemez Mountains ◽  
Archaeological Materials

Abstract Background Wildfires of uncharacteristic severity, a consequence of climate changes and accumulated fuels, can cause amplified or novel impacts to archaeological resources. The archaeological record includes physical features associated with human activity; these exist within ecological landscapes and provide a unique long-term perspective on human–environment interactions. The potential for fire-caused damage to archaeological materials is of major concern because these resources are irreplaceable and non-renewable, have social or religious significance for living peoples, and are protected by an extensive body of legislation. Although previous studies have modeled ecological burn severity as a function of environmental setting and climate, the fidelity of these variables as predictors of archaeological fire effects has not been evaluated. This study, focused on prehistoric archaeological sites in a fire-prone and archaeologically rich landscape in the Jemez Mountains of New Mexico, USA, identified the environmental and climate variables that best predict observed fire severity and fire effects to archaeological features and artifacts. Results Machine learning models (Random Forest) indicate that topography and variables related to pre-fire weather and fuel condition are important predictors of fire effects and severity at archaeological sites. Fire effects were more likely to be present when fire-season weather was warmer and drier than average and within sites located in sloped, treed settings. Topographic predictors were highly important for distinguishing unburned, moderate, and high site burn severity as classified in post-fire archaeological assessments. High-severity impacts were more likely at archaeological sites with southern orientation or on warmer, steeper, slopes with less accumulated surface moisture, likely associated with lower fuel moistures and high potential for spreading fire. Conclusions Models for predicting where and when fires may negatively affect the archaeological record can be used to prioritize fuel treatments, inform fire management plans, and guide post-fire rehabilitation efforts, thus aiding in cultural resource preservation.

Environmental evolution and anthropogenic forcing in the Garigliano coastal plain (Italy) during the Holocene

The Holocene ◽  
2021 ◽  
pp. 095968362110032
Author(s):  
Halinka Di Lorenzo ◽  
Pietro Aucelli ◽  
Giuseppe Corrado ◽  
Mario De Iorio ◽  
Marcello Schiattarella ◽  
...  
Keyword(s):  
Human Activity ◽  
Coastal Plain ◽  
Forest Cover ◽  
Environmental Changes ◽  
Pollen Data ◽  
Human Environment ◽  
The Holocene ◽  
Natural Processes ◽  
History Of ◽  
The Rich

The Garigliano alluvial-coastal plain, at the Latium-Campania border (Italy), witnessed a long-lasting history of human-environment interactions, as demonstrated by the rich archaeological knowledge. With the aim of reconstructing the evolution of the landscape and its interaction with human activity during the last millennia, new pollen results from the coastal sector of the Garigliano Plain were compared with the available pollen data from other nearby sites. The use of pollen data from both the coastal and marine environment allowed integrating the local vegetation dynamics within a wider regional context spanning the last 8000 years. The new pollen data presented in this study derive from the analysis of a core, drilled in the coastal sector, which intercepted the lagoon-marshy environments that occurred in the plain as a response to the Holocene transgression and subsequent coastal progradation. Three radiocarbon ages indicate that the chronology of the analyzed core interval ranges from c. 7200 to c. 2000 cal yr BP. The whole data indicate that a dense forest cover characterized the landscape all along the Prehistoric period, when a few signs of human activity are recorded in the spectra, such as cereal crops, pasture activity and fires. The main environmental changes, forced by natural processes (coastal progradation) but probably enhanced by reclamation works, started from the Graeco-Roman period and led to the reduction of swampy areas that favoured the colonisation of the outer plain.

The influence of human activity in the Arctic on climate and climate impacts

2007 ◽  
Vol 82 (1-2) ◽  
pp. 77-92 ◽  
Author(s):  
Henry P. Huntington ◽  
Michelle Boyle ◽  
Gwenn E. Flowers ◽  
John W. Weatherly ◽  
Lawrence C. Hamilton ◽  
...  
Keyword(s):  
Human Activity ◽  
Climate Impacts ◽  
The Arctic

scholarly journals SEA LEVEL CHANGES ALONG THE COASTS OF KEA ISLAND AND PALEOGEOGRAPHICAL COASTAL RECONSTRUCTION OF ARCHAEOLOGICAL SITES

2017 ◽  
Vol 43 (1) ◽  
pp. 453 ◽  
Author(s):  
N.D Mourtzas
Keyword(s):  
Sea Level ◽  
Human Activity ◽  
Human Activities ◽  
Archaeological Sites ◽  
Classical Period ◽  
Sea Level Changes ◽  
Coastal Morphology ◽  
Sea Levels

Sea level changes during the Upper Holocene submerged the coasts of Kea in three different phases about 5.50m, 3.90m and 1.50m respectively below the contemporary sea level thus causing sea transgression along the shores of Kea, which varied from 8m to 78m depending on the coastal morphology. These changes caused the alteration of the earlier morphology at coastal archaeological sites of the Island, as the prehistoric settlement of Ayia Irini and Classical period port of Karthaia, as well as, submerged under the sea areas of coastal human activity during antiquity, as the ancient schist quarry at Spathi bay. The study of historical, geomorphological and sedimentological data indicative of previous sea levels allow the paleogeographical reconstruction of the coasts during the period of human activities in these areas.

scholarly journals Weaving the Common Threads of Simulation and Formation studies in Archaeology

2017 ◽  
Author(s):  
Benjamin Davies
Keyword(s):  
Computer Simulation ◽  
Human Activity ◽  
Computational Models ◽  
Experimental Studies ◽  
Surface Erosion ◽  
Archaeological Record ◽  
The Common ◽  
The Relationship ◽  
Material Record

Computer simulation is a tool increasingly used by archaeologists to build theories about past human activity; however, simulation has had a limited role theorising about the relationship between past behaviours and the formation of observed patterning in the material record. This paper visits the argument for using simulation as a means of addressing the gap that exists between archaeological interpretations of past behaviours and their physical residues. It is argued that simulation is used for much the same reason that archaeologists use ethnographic or experimental studies, and that computational models can help to address some of the practical limitations of these approaches to record formation. A case study from arid Australia, examining the effects of episodic surface erosion on the visibility of the record, shows how simple, generative simulations, grounded in formational logic, can be used to compare different explanatory mechanisms and suggest tests of the archaeological record itself.

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