The early development of the head and pharynx of
Hynobius nebulosus
(11.5 to 32 mm long) and
retardatus
(27 and 37 mm specimens) was investigated in some detail from transverse serial microtome sections. Analysis included the chondrocranium, jaws and hyobranchial skeleton, ossifications, cranial and anterior spinal nerves, musculature, blood system and other associated anatomical features. The structure of the skeletogenous elements in general agreed with earlier descriptions. However, a rudimentary fenestra lateralis nasi is found in the nasal capsule of
H. nebulosus
, hitherto not reported, and a complete cartilaginous processus pterygoideus, confluent with the trabecula and inner margin of the lamina orbito-nasalis described by Edgeworth (1923
a
), was not extant in any
Hynobius
specimen.
H. retardatus
has a hypoglossal foramen (and nerve) and joins H. nebulosus (Fox 1957),
Cryptobranchus japonicus
and
alleghaniensis
as the only living Amphibia to possess this structure. The neural arch homology of the occipital crest is reaffirmed. The columella stilus of the 32 mm
H. nebulosus
is confluent with the pterygo-quadrate cartilage and because the hyoid and columella have a common blastematous origin in
Hypogeophis
(Marcus 1910), it is suggested that there was an ancestral cartilaginous continuity between the hyoid and pterygo-quadrate cartilage, similar to the commissura terminales of the branchiale. This feature would further emphasize the branchial segmental homologies of the mandibular cartilage, hyoid and branchiale. The pattern of the cranial nerves is similar to that of other urodele larvae and the arrangement of the profundus and maxillaris nerves supports the view of the descent of urodeles from porolepiforme crossopterygians (Jarvik 1942). There is a segmental series of eleven head-pharynx segments, a complete branchial segment including a levator muscle, nerve, cartilage bar and gill cleft. Each post-hyoid segment is complete except for the absence of branchiale V and VI, and behind the fourth functional gill cleft there are three vestigial blind ones and then the larynx and trachea leading to the lungs. The masseter (2nd segment), digastricus (3rd segment), dilator laryngeus (10th segment) and trapezius (11th segment) are considered to be the homologues of the other six intervening levator gill arch muscles. The arytenoid and tracheal cartilages are considered to be branchial bars of the 10th and 11th segments respectively, and the lungs to have developed from gill pouches of the 11th segment which failed to reach the exterior early in vertebrate evolution. The classical view of the homology of the laryngo-tracheal skeleton with a branchial bar enunciated by Gegenbaur and Wilder independently in 1892 is therefore upheld; disagreement is merely a numerical one. The basic segmental components of the amphibian head and pharynx are modified in ontogeny by omission, distortion or addition, in order to fit the animal for a terrestrial existence.
Neuroinflammation and the Kynurenine Pathway in CNS Disease: Molecular Mechanisms and Therapeutic Implications