An Essay on Western Civilization in its Economic Aspects: Ancient Times.

1899 ◽  
Vol 14 (2) ◽  
pp. 339
Author(s):  
Lindley M. Keasbey ◽  
W. Cunningham
Author(s):  
Liz Abad MAXIMIANO

A noção de paisagem acompanha a existência humana desde o início, uma vez que a sobrevivência dos seres humanos sempre dependeu de sua relação com o meio. Entretanto, a formulação de um conceito de paisagem ocorreu ao longo de muito tempo, começando a se manifestar mais claramente a partir das observações de pintores, artistas e poetas, tanto do Oriente quanto no Ocidente. Na Antigüidade o ambiente fora do controle humano era olhado com desconfiança e entendido como elemento hostil, daí serem construídos jardins fechados para lazer, contemplação ou plantio de algumas espécies. No Ocidente, a partir de Humboldt, iniciam estudos mais sistemáticos que levariam à compreensão de paisagem como resultante de um complexo de interações entre elementos naturais e humanos. Contudo, ainda haveria discussões sobre o conceito e o método de abordagem da paisagem, passando por ênfases nos aspectos geomorfológicos, biológico ou ocupação humana de um espaço. Em meio a tendências à especialização da década de 60, Bertrand, geógrafo francês, descartou que paisagem fosse uma simples junção de elementos geográficos; antes definiu-a como “combinação dinâmica, instável, dos elementos físicos, biológicos e antrópicos.” Na Geografia ocidental contemporânea paisagem é entendida como produto visual de interações entre elementos naturais e sociais que, por ocupar um espaço, pode ser cartografada em escala macro ou de detalhe, e classificada de acordo com um método ou elemento que a compõe. Paisagem não é o mesmo que espaço, mas parte dele; algo como um parâmetro ou medida multidimensional de análise espacial. Considerations about landscape concept Abstract Conceptions about landscape come together in human life, since mankind’s existence has always depended on his relationship with nature. However, the expression of a landscape concept took some time, and its first concrete manifestation came through arts, both in Eastern and Western civilization. In ancient times, an environment out of human control was seen as a hostile element, so, there were closed gardens, built to enjoy plants, birds and leisure time. In the West, ideas and systematic studies started with Humboldt, who considered landscape to be a result of complex interactions between natural and human elements. Discussions would continue about the concept and evolving method for landscape studies, with an emphasis on geomorphology, or on vegetation, or on land use, or another aspect. There was a trend toward specialisation in the 60’s research, and Bertrand defined landscape as a dynamic and unstable combination of physical, biological and anthropic factors. In contemporary western geography, landscape is a visual product of interaction between natural and social elements. As landscape occupies space, it can be mapped by different scales and classified according to a particular method or an element of its totality. Landscape is not the same as space, but part of it; something like a parameter or multidimensional measure of spatial analysis.


1996 ◽  
Vol 17 (1-2) ◽  
pp. 118-138
Author(s):  
Jacob Neusner

A single document, the Talmud of Babylonia – that is to say, the Misha, a philosophical law code that reached closure at ca 100 C.E., as read by the Gemara, a commentary to thirty-seven of the sixty-three tractates of that code, compiled in Babylonia, reaching closure by ca 600 C.E. – from ancient times to the present day has served as the medium of instruction for all literate Jews, teaching, by example alone, the craft of clear thinking, compelling argument, correct rhetoric. That craft originated in Athens with Plato’s Socrates for the medium of thought, and with Aristotle for the method of thought, and predominated in the intellectual life of Western civilization thereafter.  When we correlate the modes of thought and analysis of the Talmud with the ones of classical philosophy that pertain, we see how the Talmud works, by which I mean, how its framers made connections and drew conclusions, for the Mishnah and Gemara respectively. And when we can explain how the Talmud works, I claim, we may also understand why it exercised the remarkable power that it did for the entire history of Judaism from its closure in the 7th century into our own time. These two questions – how it works, why it won – define the task of this presentation.


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