The role of investment arbitration in water services governance

Water Policy ◽  
2016 ◽  
Vol 19 (2) ◽  
pp. 271-285 ◽  
Author(s):  
Fernando Dias Simões
Keyword(s):  
Water Governance ◽  
Regulatory System ◽  
International Investment ◽  
Global Network ◽  
Water Services ◽  
International Investment Agreements ◽  
Water Companies ◽  
Legal Frameworks ◽  
Global Regulatory System ◽  
Global Water

The flux of foreign investment into the water industry that took place over recent decades had a significant impact on the relationship between water companies and states. The creation of a global network of international investment agreements also altered the method of adjudication of possible disputes between the parties. The emergence of global water markets and the advent of Public–Private Partnerships led to the emergence of what has been called Global Water Governance. This articles analyses how the decisions of arbitral tribunals in water-related disputes are becoming an integral part of this global regulatory system and discusses their impact on water services governance. Governments are increasingly required to have a thorough knowledge of the functioning and possible implications of the legal frameworks that underpin foreign investments in the water services market.

scholarly journals Variable Expressions of Staphylococcus aureus Bicomponent Leucotoxins Semiquantified by Competitive Reverse Transcription-PCR

2000 ◽  
Vol 66 (9) ◽  
pp. 3931-3938 ◽  
Author(s):  
St�phane Bronner ◽  
Patricia Stoessel ◽  
Alain Gravet ◽  
Henri Monteil ◽  
Gilles Pr�vost
Keyword(s):  
Staphylococcus Aureus ◽  
Reverse Transcription ◽  
Regulatory System ◽  
Optimization Procedure ◽  
Reverse Transcription Pcr ◽  
Expression Of Genes ◽  
Genes Encoding ◽  
Specific Mrnas ◽  
Casamino Acids ◽  
Global Regulatory System

ABSTRACT A competitive reverse transcription-PCR method was developed for the semiquantitation of the expression of genes encoding bicomponent leucotoxins of Staphylococcus aureus, e.g., Panton-Valentine leucocidin (lukPV), gamma-hemolysin (hlgA and hlgCB), and LukE-LukD (lukED). The optimization procedure included RNA preparation; reverse transcription; the use of various amounts of enzymes, antisense primer, and RNA; and the final amplification chain reaction. Reproducible results were obtained, with sensitivity for detection of cDNA within the range of 1 mRNA/104 CFU to 102 mRNA/CFU, depending on the gene. Both specific mRNAs were more significantly expressed at the late-exponential phase of growth. Expression was about 100-fold higher in yeast extract-Casamino Acids-pyruvate medium than in heart infusion medium. Expression of the widely distributed gamma-hemolysin locus in the NTCC 8178 strain was around 10-fold diminished compared with that in the ATCC 49775 strain. Because of the lower level of hlgA expression, the corresponding protein, which is generally not abundant in culture supernatant, should be investigated for its contribution to the leucotoxin-associated virulence. The agr, sar, and agr sar mutant strains revealed a great dependence with regard to leucotoxin expression on the global regulatory system inS. aureus, except that expression of hlgA was not affected in the agr mutant.

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