scholarly journals Summer Cover Crops and Lettuce Planting Time Influence Weed Population, Soil Nitrogen Concentration, and Lettuce Yields

2016 ◽  
Vol 26 (4) ◽  
pp. 409-416 ◽  
Author(s):  
Raymond Kruse ◽  
Ajay Nair
Keyword(s):  
Soil Nitrogen ◽  
Cover Crops ◽  
Cover Crop ◽  
Cropping Systems ◽  
Weed Suppression ◽  
Control Treatment ◽  
Vegetable Production ◽  
Vegetable Crop ◽  
Lettuce Growth ◽  
Sorghum Sudangrass

Cover crops can be used as a sustainable weed management tool in crop production systems. Cover crops have the ability to suppress weeds, reduce soil erosion, increase soil organic matter, and improve soil physical, chemical, and biological properties. In the north-central region of the United States, including Iowa, much cover crop research has been conducted in row crop systems, mainly with corn (Zea mays) and soybean (Glycine max) where cover crops are planted at the end of the growing season in September or October. There is little information available on the use of cover crops in vegetable cropping systems, particularly on the use of summer cover crops for fall vegetable production. The choice of the cover crop will significantly impact the entire fall vegetable production enterprise. Vegetable growers need information to identify the right cover crop for a particular slot in the cropping system and to understand how cover crops would affect weed suppression, soil properties, and successive vegetable crop yield. The time interval between cover crop termination and vegetable planting critically affects the growth and successive yield of the vegetable crop. This study investigated how short-duration summer cover crops impact weed suppression, soil properties, and ‘Adriana’ lettuce (Lactuca sativa) yield. The study also examined appropriate planting times of lettuce transplants after soil incorporation of cover crops. The experimental design was a randomized complete block split-plot design with four replications. Whole plots consisted of cover crop treatments: ‘Mancan’ buckwheat (Fagopyrum esculentum), ‘Iron & Clay’ cowpea/southernpea (Vigna unguiculata), black oats (Avena strigosa), ‘Grazex II’ sorghum-sudangrass (Sorghum bicolor ssp. drummondii), and a control (no-cover crop) where weeds were left to grow unchecked. The subplot treatment consisted of two lettuce transplanting times: planted immediately or 8 days after cover crop soil incorporation. Fall-planted butterhead lettuce was used. Data were collected on cover crop biomass, weed biomass, soil nutrient concentration, lettuce growth, and yield. All cover crops significantly reduced weed biomass during the fallow period as compared with the control treatment. Highest degree of weed suppression (90% as compared with the no-cover crop control treatment) was provided by buckwheat. Southernpea, a legume, increased soil nitrogen (N) concentration and contributed to higher lettuce yield and improved quality. Southernpea also enhanced lettuce growth and led to an earlier harvest than other treatments. Sorghum-sudangrass showed evidence of detrimental effects to the marketable lettuce crop. This was not due to N immobilization but presumably due to alleopathic properties. There is no clear pattern within any cover crop treatment that lettuce planting time following cover crop termination affects plant growth; however, planting early or soon after cover crop incorporation ensures more growing degree days and daylight, thus leading to timely harvest of a higher quality product. This study demonstrates that cover crops can successfully be integrated into vegetable cropping systems; however, cover crop selection is critical.

Utilizing Cover Crops for Weed Suppression within Buffer Areas of 2,4-D-Resistant Soybean

2021 ◽  
pp. 1-40
Author(s):  
Connor L. Hodgskiss ◽  
Bryan G. Young ◽  
Shalamar D. Armstrong ◽  
William G. Johnson
Keyword(s):  
Cover Crops ◽  
Cover Crop ◽  
Cropping Systems ◽  
Weed Suppression ◽  
Control Treatment ◽  
Cereal Rye ◽  
Percentage Point Increase ◽  
Point Increase ◽  
Giant Ragweed ◽  
Similar Yield

Cover crops can be utilized to suppress weeds via direct competition for sunlight, water, and soil nutrients. Research was conducted to determine if cover crops can be used in label mandated buffer areas in 2,4-D-resistant soybean cropping systems. Delaying termination of cover crops containing cereal rye to at, or after, soybean planting resulted in a 25 to over 200 percentage point increase in cover crop biomass compared to a control treatment. Cover crops generally improved horseweed control when 2,4-D was not used. Cover crops reduced grass densities up to 54% at four of six site-years when termination was delayed to after soybean planting. Cover crops did not reduce giant ragweed densities. Cover crops reduced waterhemp densities by up to 45%. Cover crops terminated at, or after planting were beneficial within buffer areas for control of grassess and waterhemp, but not giant ragweed. Yield reductions of 14 to 41% occurred when cover crop termination was delayed to after soybean planting at three of six site-years. Terminating the cover crops at planting time provided suppression of grasses and waterhemp within buffer areas and had similar yield to the highest yielding treatment in five out of six site-years.

scholarly journals Yield of ‘Superior’ potatoes (Solanum tuberosum) and dynamics of root-lesion nematode (Pratylenchus penetrans) populations following “nematode suppressive” cover crops and fumigation

2005 ◽  
Vol 82 (1) ◽  
pp. 13-23 ◽  
Author(s):  
A.W. McKeown ◽  
J.W.. Potter
Keyword(s):  
Solanum Tuberosum ◽  
Cover Crops ◽  
Cover Crop ◽  
Potato Crop ◽  
Red Clover ◽  
Vegetable Production ◽  
Pratylenchus Penetrans ◽  
Root Lesion Nematode ◽  
Lesion Nematode ◽  
Sorghum Sudangrass

Studies were conducted at Simcoe, Ontario from 1992 to 1996 to evaluate various cover crop species as possible alternatives to fumigation prior to potatoes (Solanum tuberosum). Cereal rye (Secale cereale), a common overwinter cover crop in vegetable production systems, is an excellent host for the root-lesion nematode (Pratylenchus penetrans) and provides a suitable overwintering host on coarse sandy soils. Vorlex Plus CP and Telone IIB fumigants were compared to 'Domo' mustard (Brassica juncea) for the 1993 and 1994 potato crop years. Rye plus red clover (Trifolium pratense) was included as a known host cover crop system. Cyanogenic plants including 'Domo' mustard (1994) or 'Cutlass' mustard (1995, 1996), 'Forge' canola (Brassica rapa), 'Sordan 79' and 'Trudan 8' sorghum-sudangrass hybrids (Sorghum bicolor), and flax (Linum usitatissimum) were compared to Vorlex Plus CP fumigant and 'NK557' sorghum (Sorghum vulgare) for effects on potato yield and nematodes. Shallow (15 cm) and deep (45 cm) fumigation with Vorlex Plus CP were also compared prior to potatoes for the 1994 to 1996 crop years. There was little detectable difference in percent or days to 50% emergence of potatoes following any treatment. Highest total and marketable yields resulted from Telone IIB fumigation, then Vorlex Plus CP fumigation and 'Domo' mustard, followed by control and rye plus red clover cover. Populations of nematodes surpassed the threshold of 1000 kg-1 soil in all treatments and were highest in potatoes following rye plus red clover. Yield and nematode control following sorghum-sudangrass hybrids and mustards appeared to be intermediate between fumigated and not fumigated. All of the cover crops appeared to be root-lesion nematode hosts in the field, and reduction of population levels appeared to result after incorporation or nematode winterkill. Nematode mortality was excellent with fumigation and next best from kill over the winter after 'Sordan 79' incorporation. 'Sordan 79' grown over at least part of the summer followed by incorporation was an alternative to fumigation prior to potatoes. Deep chiselling appears to reduce nematode population, possibly by physical action. Where nematode populations warrant, deep fumigation prior to potatoes appears to be of merit.

scholarly journals An Evaluation of Summer Cover Crops for Use in Vegetable Production Systems in North Carolina

HortScience ◽  
2000 ◽  
Vol 35 (4) ◽  
pp. 600-603 ◽  
Author(s):  
Nancy G. Creamer ◽  
Keith R. Baldwin
Keyword(s):  
Cover Crops ◽  
Aboveground Biomass ◽  
Production Systems ◽  
Pennisetum Glaucum ◽  
Cropping Systems ◽  
Foxtail Millet ◽  
Vegetable Production ◽  
Vegetable Crops ◽  
Lablab Purpureus ◽  
Sorghum Sudangrass

Summer cover crops can produce biomass, contribute nitrogen to cropping systems, increase soil organic matter, and suppress weeds. Through fixation of atmospheric N2 and uptake of soil residual N, they also contribute to the N requirement of subsequent vegetable crops. Six legumes {cowpea (Vigna unguiculata L.), sesbania (Sesbania exaltata L.), soybean (Glycine max L.), hairy indigo (Indigofera hirsutum L.), velvetbean [Mucuna deeringiana (Bort.) Merr.], and lablab (Lablab purpureus L.)}; two nonlegume broadleaved species [buckwheat (Fagopyrum esculentum Moench) and sesame (Sesamum indicum L.)]; and five grasses {sorghum-sudangrass [Sorghum bicolor (L) Moench × S. sudanense (P) Stapf.], sudangrass [S. sudanense (P) Stapf.], Japanese millet [Echinochloa frumentacea (Roxb.) Link], pearl millet [Pennisetum glaucum (L). R. Br.], and German foxtail millet [Setaria italica (L.) Beauv.)]}, were planted in raised beds alone or in mixtures in 1995 at Plymouth, and in 1996 at Goldsboro, N.C. Biomass production for the legumes ranged from 1420 (velvetbean) to 4807 kg·ha-1 (sesbania). Low velvetbean biomass was attributed to poor germination in this study. Nitrogen in the aboveground biomass for the legumes ranged from 32 (velvetbean) to 97 kg·ha-1 (sesbania). All of the legumes except velvetbean were competitive with weeds. Lablab did not suppress weeds as well as did cover crops producing higher biomass. Aboveground biomass for grasses varied from 3918 (Japanese millet) to 8792 kg·ha-1 (sorghum-sudangrass). While N for the grasses ranged from 39 (Japanese millet) to 88 kg·ha-1 (sorghum-sudangrass), the C: N ratios were very high. Additional N would be needed for fall-planted vegetable crops to overcome immobilization of N. All of the grass cover crops reduced weeds as relative to the weedy control plot. Species that performed well together as a mixture at both sites included Japanese millet/soybean and sorghum-sudangrass/cowpea.

Weed Control by Spring Cover Crops and Imazethapyr in No-till Southern Pea (Vigna unguiculata)

1996 ◽  
Vol 10 (4) ◽  
pp. 893-899 ◽  
Author(s):  
Nilda R. Burgos ◽  
Ronald E. Talbert
Keyword(s):  
Weed Control ◽  
Cover Crops ◽  
Cover Crop ◽  
Palmer Amaranth ◽  
Weed Suppression ◽  
Italian Ryegrass ◽  
No Till ◽  
Sorghum Sudangrass ◽  
Reduced Rate ◽  
Large Crabgrass

Studies were conducted at the Vegetable Substation in Kibler, AR, in 1992 and 1993, in the same plots, to evaluate weed suppression by spring-seeded cover crops and to determine the effects of cover crop and imazethapyr on no-till southern pea. A plot without cover, conventionally tilled before planting southern pea, served as control. Weed control treatments, applied as subplots in each cover crop, included a weedy check, handweeded check, and half and full rates of imazethapyr (0.035 and 0.07 kg/ha) followed by sethoxydim (0.22 kg/ha). Biomass of Palmer amaranth 6 WAR without herbicides, was less in Italian ryegrass and sorghum-sudangrass residues than in oat residue and no cover crop. Over the years, Palmer amaranth density increased 333% without cover crops and 28% with cover crops. Rice flatsedge density increased four to five times in oat and sorghum-sudangrass residues but remained the same in Italian ryegrass residue. In general, Italian ryegrass residue suppressed the most weeds. Oat residue was least suppressive. Italian ryegrass and sorghum-sudangrass also reduced southern pea stand. Regardless of cover crop and year, half and full rates of imazethapyr followed by sethoxydim equally reduced density of Palmer amaranth, goosegrass, large crabgrass, southwestern cupgrass, and rice flatsedge compared with the untreated check. Residual control of Palmer amaranth by imazethapyr was higher at the full rate than the reduced rate, regardless of cover crop. Half rate of imazethapyr followed by sethoxydim controlled 94 to 100% of Palmer amaranth, rice flatsedge, large crabgrass, and southwestern cupgrass late in the season, regardless of cover crop in 1992 and 1993. Southern pea yield in untilled plots with cover crops was two to three times lower than yield in plots with preplant tillage and no cover crops mostly because of reduction in crop stand in the presence of cover crops.

scholarly journals Nutrient Cycling, Weed Suppression, and Onion Yield Following Brassica and Sorghum Sudangrass Cover Crops

2008 ◽  
Vol 18 (1) ◽  
pp. 68-74 ◽  
Author(s):  
Guangyao Wang ◽  
Mathieu Ngouajio ◽  
Darryl D. Warncke
Keyword(s):  
Nutrient Cycling ◽  
Cover Crops ◽  
Cover Crop ◽  
Amaranthus Retroflexus ◽  
Weed Suppression ◽  
Similar Amount ◽  
Yellow Mustard ◽  
Weed Density ◽  
Oilseed Radish ◽  
Sorghum Sudangrass

The effects of cover crops on nutrient cycling, weed suppression, and onion (Allium cepa) yield were evaluated under a muck soil with high organic matter in Michigan. Four brassica cover crops, including brown mustard (Brassica juncea ‘Common brown’), oilseed radish (Raphanus sativus ‘Daikon’), oriental mustard (B. juncea ‘Forge’), and yellow mustard (Sinapis alba ‘Tilney’), as well as sorghum sudangrass (Sorghum bicolor × S. sudanense ‘Honey Sweet’) produced similar amount of biomass and recycled similar amounts of nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium. The brassica cover crop biomass contained more calcium, sulfur, and boron, but less magnesium, iron, manganese, copper, and zinc than sorghum sudangrass. However, soil fertility was generally similar regardless of whether a cover crop was used. This was mainly because the soil was sampled when most of the cover crop residue was not yet decomposed. Weed density during onion growth was reduced by all cover crops compared with the control with no cover crop, with yellow mustard treatment having the lowest weed density among the cover crops. Weed species composition was also significantly affected by the cover crops. Yellow mustard treatment had the lowest density of common purslane (Portulaca oleracea) and redroot pigweed (Amaranthus retroflexus), whereas sorghum sudangrass had the highest yellow nutsedge (Cyperus esculentus) density among all the treatments. However, weed suppression was not enough to eliminate normal control strategies. The brassica cover crops, especially oilseed radish and yellow mustard, increased onion stand count and marketable yield. These results suggest that brassica and sorghum sudangrass cover crops could provide multiple benefits if incorporated into short-term onion rotations under Michigan growing conditions.

scholarly journals Effects of Cover Crops on Soil Microbial Biomass in Vegetable Cropping Systems

HortScience ◽  
2004 ◽  
Vol 39 (4) ◽  
pp. 871A-871
Author(s):  
Mohan Selvaraj* ◽  
Mathieu Ngouajio
Keyword(s):  
Microbial Biomass ◽  
Cover Crops ◽  
Cover Crop ◽  
Soil Microbial Biomass ◽  
Cropping Systems ◽  
Soil Microbial Activity ◽  
Soil Microbial ◽  
Winter Cover ◽  
Winter Cover Crops ◽  
Sorghum Sudangrass

The inclusion of cover crops into cropping systems may influence soil microbial activity which is crucial to sustained crop production. A study was conducted to measure short term effects of summer and winter cover crops on soil microbial biomass carbon (MBC) in a cucumber-tomato rotation system. The experiment was established in Summer 2002 as a factorial of summer cover crops (planted either as fallow or after harvest of cucumbers) and winter cover crops (planted in September). The design was a split-block with four replications. The main plot factor was summer cover crop and consisted of five treatments; sorghum sudangrass fallow (SGF), cowpea fallow (CPF), sorghum sudangrass after cucumber (SGC), cowpea after cucumber (CPC) and bareground fallow (BGF). The sub-plot factor was winter cover crop and consisted of three treatments including cereal rye (CR), hairy vetch (HV) and bareground (BG). In spring of 2003, soil samples were collected in each treatment at 30 days before (30 DBI), 2 days after (2 DAI) and 30 days after (30 DAI) cover crop incorporation. MBC was measured using the chloroform fumigation-incubation method. Both summer and winter cover crops affected soil microbial activity. MBC in the summer cover crop treatments at 30 DBI was 47.7, 51.4, 49.2, 43.7 and 42.5 μg·g-1 soil for SGF, CPF, SGC, CPC and BGF, respectively. At 30 DAI, 113.1, 88.9, 138.5, 105.6, and 109.3 μg·g-1 soil was obtained in SGF, CPF, SGC, CPC, and BGF plots, respectively. Soil MBC was similar at 2 DAI in the summer cover crop treatments. Among winter treatments MBC was similar at 30 DBI and 30 DAI, but significant at 2 DAI with values of 62.8, 53.3, 59.3 μg·g-1 soil for CR, BG, and HV, respectively.

scholarly journals 183 Influence of Cover Crops on Weed Control and Plant Growth in Strawberry (Fragaria × ananassa Duch.)

HortScience ◽  
1999 ◽  
Vol 34 (3) ◽  
pp. 473E-473
Author(s):  
Braja B. Datta ◽  
Ray D William
Keyword(s):  
Plant Growth ◽  
Cover Crops ◽  
Cover Crop ◽  
Crop Residues ◽  
Weed Suppression ◽  
Root Competition ◽  
Control Treatment ◽  
Shoot Biomass ◽  
Yield Reduction ◽  
Weed Biomass

Fall-planted cover crops killed in spring is practiced in strawberry cultivation in different regions of the North America. These systems have shown significant weed suppression and conservation of soil without significant yield reduction in strawberry. During the establishment season, this study was initiated to assess weed suppression with cover crops (`Wheeler' rye and `Micah' and `Steptoe' barley) along with perlite, an artificial plant medium. Strawberry (`Selva' and `Totem') plant growth and weed biomass were measured during 1995-96 season. Small-seeded summer annual weeds were suppressed in cover crop treatments compared to control treatment. `Micah' barley in growth phase suppressed more than 81% of the total weed biomass compared to control plots with no cover crop in early spring. However, in early summer, cover crop residues failed to suppress different types of weeds 60 days after killing of cereal with herbicide (2% glyphosate). Distinct differences in strawberry plant growth were evident between the cover crop treatments and non-cover crop treatments including `Micah' applied on surface. Strawberry growth was doubled during 10 July to 15 Aug. in both cultivars. `Micah' barley applied on surface produced better growth in both strawberry varieties than the growth in other treatments. `Micah' barley applied on soil surface produced 50% more strawberry shoot biomass may indicate the root competition between cover crops and strawberry.

The Role of Cover Crops in Agriculture and Their Environmental Significance

2018 ◽  
Author(s):  
Helena Aronsson
Keyword(s):  
Cover Crops ◽  
Cover Crop ◽  
Management Practice ◽  
Cropping Systems ◽  
Weed Suppression ◽  
N Leaching ◽  
P Availability ◽  
N Losses ◽  
Soil P ◽  
Positive Effects

Growing a cover crop between main crops imitates natural ecosystems where the soil is continuously covered with vegetation. This is an important management practice in preserving soil nutrient resources and reducing nitrogen (N) losses to waters. Cover crops also provide other functions that are important for the resilience and long-term stability of cropping systems, such as reduced erosion, increased soil fertility, carbon sequestration, increased soil phosphorus (P) availability, and suppression of weeds and pathogens. Much is known about how to use cover crops to reduce N leaching, for climates where there is a water surplus outside the growing season. Non-legume cover crops reduce N leaching by 20%–80% and legumes reduce it by, on average, 23%. There are both synergies and possible conflicts between different environmental and production aspects that should be considered when developing efficient and multifunctional cover crop systems, but contradictions about different functions provided by cover crops can sometimes be overcome with site-specific adaptation of measures. One example is cover crop effects on P losses. Cover crops reduce losses of total P, but extract soil P to available forms and may increase losses of dissolved P. How to use this effect to increase soil P availability on subtropical soils needs further studies. Knowledge and examples of how to maximize the positive effects of cover crops on cropping systems are improving, thereby increasing the sustainability of agriculture. One example is combined weed suppression in order to reduce dependence on herbicides or intensive mechanical treatment.

Sorghum sudangrass as a summer cover and hay crop for organic fall cabbage production

2009 ◽  
Vol 24 (3) ◽  
pp. 225-233 ◽  
Author(s):  
Denise M. Finney ◽  
Nancy G. Creamer ◽  
Jonathan R. Schultheis ◽  
Michael G. Wagger ◽  
Cavell Brownie
Keyword(s):  
Cover Crop ◽  
Low Frequency ◽  
Conventional Tillage ◽  
Weed Suppression ◽  
Vegetable Production ◽  
Crop Failure ◽  
Crop Species ◽  
Head Weight ◽  
Sorghum Sudangrass ◽  
Crop Biomass

AbstractNo-tillage (NT) organic vegetable production presents several economic opportunities for growers in the southeastern United States while promoting natural resource conservation. This study was conducted to determine if removal of sorghum sudangrass (SS) cover crop biomass as hay, frequency at which the cover crop is mowed, and tillage affect weed suppression and head weight of transplanted organic cabbage. Sorghum sudangrass [Sorghum bicolor (L.) Moench×Sorgum sudanense (Piper) Staph.] was planted in May 2004 at Reidsville and Goldsboro, NC, preceding the planting of organic ‘Bravo’ cabbage (Brassica oleracea L. Capitata group) in August and September 2004, respectively. SS management systems included: low-frequency mowing with hay removed following the first mowing operation (LFM-H), low-frequency mowing with hay not removed (LFM), high-frequency mowing with hay not removed (HFM) and a no cover crop control. Two tillage treatments were applied within each management system: conventional tillage (CT) and NT. Under NT conditions, SS mulch generated by LFM offered broadleaf weed control in cabbage similar to that achieved under CT, regardless of whether cover crop biomass was removed as hay. Mowing with higher frequency reduced SS cover crop biomass by 18–33% and reduced weed suppression in NT cabbage. Mowing frequency did not influence the quantity of SS that re-grew in the cabbage crop. SS re-growth contributed to lower head weight in NT compared to CT cabbage in Goldsboro, and crop failure of NT cabbage in Reidsville. Cabbage head weight was highest when the crop was not preceded by SS in both CT and NT systems (1.6 as opposed to 1.3–1.4 kg head−1). Our findings suggest that the potential for growers to manage a cover crop also as a hay crop does exist; however, SS may not be a compatible cover crop species for organic fall cabbage production due to high amounts of re-growth.

Grass–Legume Mixtures and Soil Fertility Affect Cover Crop Performance and Weed Seed Production

2011 ◽  
Vol 25 (3) ◽  
pp. 473-479 ◽  
Author(s):  
Daniel C. Brainard ◽  
Robin R. Bellinder ◽  
Virender Kumar
Keyword(s):  
Soil Fertility ◽  
Seed Production ◽  
Biomass Production ◽  
Cover Crops ◽  
Cover Crop ◽  
Field Experiments ◽  
Weed Suppression ◽  
Chicken Manure ◽  
Weed Seed ◽  
Sorghum Sudangrass

Summer leguminous cover crops can improve soil health and reduce the economic and environmental costs associated with N fertilizers. However, adoption is often constrained by poor weed suppression compared to nonlegume cover crops. In field experiments conducted in organic vegetable cropping systems in north-central New York, two primary hypotheses were tested: (1) mixtures of legume cover crops (cowpea and soybean) with grasses (sorghum–sudangrass and Japanese millet) reduce weed seed production and increase cover crop productivity relative to legume monocultures and (2) higher soil fertility shifts the competitive outcome in favor of weeds and nonlegume cover crops. Cover crops were grown either alone or in grass–legume combinations with or without composted chicken manure. Under hot, dry conditions in 2005, cowpea and soybean cover crops were severely suppressed by weeds in monoculture and by sorghum–sudangrass in mixtures, resulting in low legume biomass, poor nodulation, and high levels of Powell amaranth seed production (> 25,000 seeds m−2). Under more typical temperature and rainfall conditions in 2006, cowpea mixtures with Japanese millet stimulated cowpea biomass production and nodulation compared to monoculture, but soybeans were suppressed in mixtures with both grasses. Composted chicken manure shifted competition in favor of weeds at the expense of cowpea (2005), stimulated weed and grass biomass production (2006), and suppressed nodulation of soybean (2006). In a complementary on-farm trial, cowpea mixtures with sorghum–sudangrass suppressed weed biomass by 99%; however, both common purslane and hairy galinsoga produced sufficient seeds (600 seeds m−2) to replenish the existing weed seedbank. Results suggest that (1) mixtures of cowpeas with grasses can improve nodulation, lower seed costs, and reduce the risk of weed seed production; (2) soybean is not compatible with grasses in mixture; and (3) future costs of weed seed production must be considered when determining optimal cover crop choices.

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