Weibliche Genitalverstümmelung in Ägypten. Beschreibung und Kausalanalyse auf inhaltsanalytischer Grundlage

2021 ◽  
Author(s):  
◽  
Tanja Preböck

Die vorliegende Masterarbeit beschäftigt sich mit der weiblichen Genitalverstümmelung (Female Genital Mutilation, FGM). Dies ist eine Praxis, die vor allem in Nordafrika und dem Nahen Osten verbreitet ist. Sie wird traditionell von der Mutter- in die Tochtergeneration weitergegeben. Neuere Entwicklungen zeigen jedoch, dass immer mehr Mütter sich gegen weibliche Genitalverstümmelung aussprechen und einige nicht beabsichtigen ihre Töchter dieser zu unterziehen. In der Abschlussarbeit wird daher zunächst auf inhaltsanalytischer Basis bisherige Literatur aus. Hierbei werden Fachartikel ebenso berücksichtigt, wie autobiographische Berichte betroffener Frauen. Aus der Zusammenschau dieser diversen literarischen Quellen wird ein Modell entwickelt, dass eine mögliche Entscheidungsfindung der Mutter für ihre Tochter darstellt. Hier ist die Annahme zentral, dass das Patriarchat, als Machtasymmetrie zwischen Mann und Frau auf verschiedenen Ebenen wirken kann und FGM als Inkorporation patriarchaler Strukturen beschrieben werden kann. Als weiterer Pfeiler wird die Theorie geplanten Verhaltens herangezogen, laut der Mütter, die ihre Töchter FGM unterziehen, in dem Glauben handeln, für diese das Beste zu tun. Theoretischen Input in das Themenfeld weiblicher Genitalverstümmelung bieten Asefaw (2017), Kuring (2007) sowie Wilson (2017) für den Bezug zu Ägypten. Das durch die Inhaltsanalyse aufgestellte Modell der mütterlichen Entscheidung wird daraufhin mit Daten des Demographic und Health Surveys (DHS) aus Ägypten von 2014 auf Plausibilität geprüft. In dieser Befragung wurden über 21.762 jemals verheiratete Frauen zwischen 15 und 49 Jahren im 2. Quartal 2014 von anderen Frauen zur mütterlichen und kindlichen Gesundheit interviewt. Die Ergebnisse zeigen, dass die Heiratsmarktmöglichkeiten der Töchter für die Mütter bei der Entscheidung für die Beschneidung sehr wichtig erscheinen. Die medizinischen Bedenken, die häufig nicht ausreichend bekannt sind, treten gegenüber diesen kulturellen Normen in den Hintergrund. Das individuell wirkende Patriarchat könnte demnach keine messbare Rolle auf individueller Ebene spielen. Dafür könnte sprechen, dass die gesamtgesellschaftlichen Wirkungen patriarchaler Strukturen in Ägypten als prädominant beschrieben werden kann (Wilson 2017). Um einen möglichen Einfluss des Patriarchats auf die Entscheidung für eine FGM an der eigenen Tochter testen zu können, müsste in weiterführenden Studien die Situation länderübergreifend verglichen werden. Es konnte gezeigt werden, dass Mütter bei der Entscheidung, ob die eigene Tochter beschnitten werden soll, verschiedene Faktoren einbeziehen, um sich eine eigene Meinung zu bilden. In Rückbezug auf literarische Quellen wurden Handlungsansätze zur Aufklärung und Stärkung der Mütter in ihrer Entscheidungsposition, beispielsweise durch Empowerment, herausgearbeitet. Im weiteren Verlauf verschiebt sich der Fokus der Arbeit: Von einem vorher afrikanischen Kontext mit Schwerpunkt Ägypten werden nun weltweite Migrationsbewegungen thematisiert. Die migrierenden Frauen bringen ihre eigene FGM-Geschichte, aber auch ihre Vorstellungen und Wünsche für ihre Töchter mit. Es wird im Folgenden thematisiert, wie die Diskussion um weibliche Genitalverstümmelung in Deutschland geführt wird, welche Maßnahmen für und gegen die Kultur der Frauen ergriffen werden, und wie diese bei den betroffenen Familien ankommen. Im letzten Schritt der Arbeit wird ein zeitgenössischer Diskussionsstrang, der häufig herangezogen wird, beleuchtet: FGM wird unter den Aspekten Diskussion darüber, Folgen davon und Einbettung in patriarchale Strukturen mit Formen der Vaginalkosmetik verglichen, da hier gemäß der Definition der Weltgesundheitsorganisation eine begriffliche Subsumierung besteht. This Master's thesis deals with Female Genital Mutilation (FGM). This practice is particularly widespread in North Africa and the Middle East. It is traditionally passed on from the mother to the daughter generation. Recent developments show, however, that more and more mothers are speaking out against female genital mutilation and some do not intend to subject their daughters to it. Therefore, the thesis will first analyse the content of existing literature. Specialist articles as well as autobiographical reports by affected women will be considered. Based on the synopsis of these various literary sources, a dicision making model for the mother is developed. The central assumption is that patriarchy, as an asymmetry of power between men and women, is effective on different levels and thus FGM can be described as the incorporation of patriarchal structures. Another pillar is the theory of planned behaviour, according to which mothers who subject their daughters to FGM act in the belief that they are doing the best for them. The model of maternal choice established by the content analysis is then checked for plausibility using the Demographic and Health Survey (DHS) data in Egypt from 2014. In this survey, more than 21,762 ever married women between 15 and 49 years were interviewed by other women about maternal and child health in the second quarter of 2014. The results show that the daughters' marriage market opportunities seem to be very important for mothers when deciding to have circumcision. Medical concerns, which are often not sufficiently known, stand behind these cultural norms. The individual level of patriarchical beliefs could not be identified playing a measurable role on an individual level. This could be argued by the fact that the overall social effects of patriarchal structures in Egypt can be described as predominating (Wilson 2017). In order to be able to test the patriarchy's possible influence on the decision for FGM on one's own daughter, further studies would have to compare the situation across countries. It could be shown that mothers in order to form their own opinion take various factors into account when deciding whether their own daughter should be circumcised. With reference to literary sources, approaches for informing and strengthening mothers in their decision-making position, for example through empowerment, are developed. In the further course of the thesis, the focus shifts from a previously african context with a focus on Egypt, worldwide migratory movements are now being addressed. The migrating women carry their own FGM history, but also their ideas and wishes for their daughters. In the following, it is discussed how the discussion on female genital mutilation is conducted in Germany, what measures are taken for and against the culture of women, and how these are perceived by the affected families. In the final step of the thesis, a contemporary strand of the discussion, which is frequently used, will be highlighted: FGM is compared with forms of vaginal cosmetics under the aspects of discussion, consequences and embeddedment in patriarchal structures, since according to the definition of the World Health Organisation there is a conceptual subsumption here.

2020 ◽  
Vol 12 (4) ◽  
pp. 266-275
Author(s):  
Sarah O’Neill ◽  
Dina Bader ◽  
Cynthia Kraus ◽  
Isabelle Godin ◽  
Jasmine Abdulcadir ◽  
...  

Abstract Purpose of Review Based on the discussions of a symposium co-organized by the Université Libre de Bruxelles (ULB) and the University of Lausanne (UNIL) in Brussels in 2019, this paper critically reflects upon the zero-tolerance strategy on “Female Genital Mutilation” (FGM) and its socio-political, legal and moral repercussions. We ask whether the strategy is effective given the empirical challenges highlighted during the symposium, and also whether it is credible. Recent Findings The anti-FGM zero-tolerance policy, first launched in 2003, aims to eliminate all types of “female genital mutilation” worldwide. The FGM definition of the World Health Organization condemns all forms of genital cutting (FGC) on the basis that they are harmful and degrading to women and infringe upon their rights to physical integrity. Yet, the zero-tolerance policy only applies to traditional and customary forms of genital cutting and not to cosmetic alterations of the female genitalia. Recent publications have shown that various popular forms of cosmetic genital surgery remove the same tissue as some forms of “FGM”. In response to the zero-tolerance policy, national laws banning traditional forms of FGC are enforced and increasingly scrutinize the performance of FGC as well as non-invasive rituals that are culturally meaningful to migrants. At the same time, cosmetic procedures such as labiaplasty have become more popular than ever before and are increasingly performed on adolescents. Summary This review shows that the socio-legal and ethical inconsistencies between “FGM” and cosmetic genital modification pose concrete dilemmas for professionals in the field that need to be addressed and researched.


2019 ◽  
Vol 4 (2) ◽  
pp. 222-237
Author(s):  
Aruni Wijayath

Female genital mutilation (FGM) is a ritual and religious and cultural practice among the Moor, Malay and Dawoodi Bohra ethnic communities in Sri Lanka. The process of FGM is ensconced from the general public in Sri Lanka; therefore, few pieces of research pertaining to the practice of FGM are available. A considerable number of international organizations profess that the percentage of FGM/cutting is zero in Sri Lanka through their reports, although newspaper articles and country reports disclose that FGM actually exists among the Muslim community in Sri Lanka. The knowledge regarding the process of FGM is in the backwater in Sri Lanka, even though a considerable number of feminism activists have created a platform to discuss the bad consequences emerging from this harmful practice. According to the World Health Organization (WHO), 30 countries of African Region, selected countries in the Middle East, and countries of Asian Region practice this custom among the female community in some ethnic and religious groups. Through this practice, the female community has not gained any advantage or benefit. The purpose of this research is to explore the municipal laws and human rights regarding FGM in the Sri Lankan context. Furthermore, international conventions which are ratified by Sri Lanka will be analysed in this manner. This research is mainly based on the normative method and retrieved Internet documentary analysis in a qualitative manner.


2013 ◽  
Vol 2013 ◽  
pp. 1-12 ◽  
Author(s):  
Katherine Brown ◽  
David Beecham ◽  
Hazel Barrett

With increased migration, female genital mutilation (FGM) also referred to as female circumcision or female genital cutting is no longer restricted to Africa, the Middle East, and Asia. The European Parliament estimates that up to half a million women living in the EU have been subjected to FGM, with a further 180,000 at risk. Aware of the limited success of campaigns addressing FGM, the World Health Organization recommended a behavioural change approach be implemented in order to end FGM. To date, however, little progress has been made in adopting a behaviour change approach in strategies aimed at ending FGM. Based on research undertaken as part of the EU’s Daphne III programme, which researched FGM intervention programmes linked to African communities in the EU (REPLACE), this paper argues that behaviour change has not been implemented due to a lack of understanding relating to the application of the two broad categories of behaviour change approach: individualistic decision-theoretic and community-change game-theoretic approaches, and how they may be integrated to aid our understanding and the development of future intervention strategies. We therefore discuss how these can be integrated and implemented using community-based participatory action research methods with affected communities.


2019 ◽  
Vol 60 (1) ◽  
pp. 84-100 ◽  
Author(s):  
Rose Grace Grose ◽  
Sarah R. Hayford ◽  
Yuk Fai Cheong ◽  
Sarah Garver ◽  
Ngianga-Bakwin Kandala ◽  
...  

Female genital mutilation/cutting (FGMC) is a human rights violation with adverse health consequences. Although prevalence is declining, the practice persists in many countries, and the individual and contextual risk factors associated with FGMC remain poorly understood. We propose an integrated theory about contextual factors and test it using multilevel discrete-time hazard models in a nationally representative sample of 7,535 women with daughters who participated in the 2014 Kenya Demographic and Health Survey. A daughter’s adjusted hazard of FGMC was lower if she had an uncut mother who disfavored FGMC, lived in a community that was more opposed to FGMC, and lived in a more ethnically diverse community. Unexpectedly, a daughter’s adjusted FGMC hazard was higher if she lived in a community with more extrafamilial opportunities for women. Other measures of women’s opportunities warrant consideration, and interventions to shift FGMC norms in more ethnically diverse communities show promise to accelerate abandonment.


2019 ◽  
Vol 8 ◽  
pp. 1336
Author(s):  
Khadijeh Sarayloo ◽  
Robab Latifnejad Roudsari ◽  
Amy Elhadi

Female genital mutilation (FGM) is a general health concern. The World Health Organization has recognized it as a condition that endangers women’s health. This review study aimed to identify the types of health outcomes of FGM. Therefore, a systematic review was conducted to create a critical view of the current evidence on the effect of circumcision on girls and women's health. In this study, we focused on the health risks of female circumcision. Academic databases such as PubMed, Science Direct, Scopus, Google Scholar, Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews, SID, IranMedex, Irandoc, and Magiran were searched with regard to the health consequences of FGM from January 1990 until 2018. Eleven review studies met the criteria and contained 288 relevant studies on the risks of FGM. It was suggested that FGM had various physical, obstetric, sexual, and psychological consequences. Women with FGM experienced mental disturbances (e.g., psychiatric diagnoses, anxiety, somatization, phobia, and low self-esteem) than other women. Our study can provide evidence on improving, changing behaviors, and making decisions on the quality of services offered to women suffering from FGM. [GMJ.2019;inpress:e1336]


2021 ◽  
Vol 7 (3) ◽  
pp. 376-409
Author(s):  
Melisa Özalp ◽  
Janet Kursawe ◽  
Jennifer von Buch ◽  
Denis Köhler

Die weibliche Genitalverstümmelung (englisch: Female Genital Mutilation, FGM) ist ein grausames Jahrtausende altes Phänomen, welches in vielen Teilen der Erde als traditionelle Praxis an Mädchen und jungen Frauen verübt wird. Sie geht für die Betroffenen meist mit gravierenden physischen und psychischen kurzfristigen und Langzeitfolgen einher. Aufgrund der Immigration gibt es auch in Deutschland nicht nur eine Vielzahl von Betroffenen, sondern auch eine steigende Zahl an Mädchen, die von diesem körperverletzenden Ritual bedroht sind. Bereits seit mehreren Jahren besteht die Strafbarkeit bezüglich weiblicher Genitalverstümmelung in Deutschland, wodurch insbesondere Bedrohte vor dem Ritus geschützt werden sollen. Für den langfristigen Schutz ist in erster Linie eine gute Präventionsarbeit essentiell. Diese sollte nicht nur die Arbeit mit betroffenen bzw. bedrohten Mädchen und Frauen umfassen, sondern auch eine Aufklärung von besonders relevanten Berufsgruppen, wie Gynäkologen, Kinderärzten und anderem medizinischen Personal, aber auch Sozialarbeitern, Lehrern, Juristen und Polizei leisten, denen eine Schlüsselrolle im Kontakt zu Betroffenen und Gefährdeten zukommt.


Author(s):  
Nele Wulfes ◽  
Nadine Kröhl ◽  
Cornelia Strunz ◽  
Uwe von Fritschen ◽  
Roland Scherer ◽  
...  

ZusammenfassungBei der weiblichen Genitalverstümmelung (englisch female genital mutilation, FGM) werden die äußeren Genitalien ohne medizinischen Grund und ohne Mitspracherecht der betroffenen Mädchen beschädigt oder entfernt. Häufig geht diese Prozedur mit erheblichen Konsequenzen für die physische und psychische Gesundheit einher. Rekonstruktive chirurgische Maßnahmen können die Beschwerden der Betroffenen lindern. Anhand einer explorativen Untersuchung von N=97 Frauen, die an einem medizinischen Beratungsgespräch zur rekonstruktiven Operation teilnahmen, wurden die besonderen Charakteristika dieser Stichprobe deskriptiv analysiert, Gründe der Inanspruchnahme einer rekonstruktiven Operation erfragt, sowie das Wissen der Patientinnen über ihren Beschneidungstyp mit der medizinischen Diagnose verglichen. Bei 56,7% (n=55) der Untersuchten lag der Verdacht einer PTBS vor. Keine Schmerzen mehr zu haben war der am häufigsten genannte Grund für eine Operation (45,4%; n=44). Die Übereinstimmung zwischen dem Wissen der Patientinnen über den Beschneidungstyp und dem ärztlichen Urteil fiel gering aus (κ=0,09). Bei physischer und psychischer Belastung sollten Frauen nach FGM neben chirurgischen Maßnahmen auch psychotherapeutisch betreut werden. Psychotherapeutische Interventionen im Kontext von FGM müssen evaluiert werden. Längsschnittstudien sind hierfür unabdingbar.


Author(s):  
Georgia Michlig ◽  
Nicole Warren ◽  
Merry Berhe ◽  
Crista Johnson-Agbakwu

Background. Female genital mutilation/cutting (FGM/C) is associated with adverse sexual, reproductive and psychological sequelae. The aim of this study was to quantitatively explore factors related to satisfaction with FGM/C-related care in the US focusing on access to care, health service utilization, and women’s experiences. Methods. A community-based survey of 879 Ethnic Somali and Somali Bantu women using snowball sampling was conducted in Arizona. Bivariate, multivariable and ordered logistics analyses assessed the relationship between the aforementioned factors measured along six dimensions: non-discrimination, physical, economic, informational, health system accessibility and individual-level health service use factors. Findings. Most participants possessed FGM/C (77.4%), namely Type III (40.2%). FGM/C related health service use was low (14.3%). Perceived discrimination was associated with reduced satisfaction in care (OR = 0.22; CI 0.13–0.37). For FGM/C-specific variables, only recollection of adverse physical or psychological events at the time of circumcision predicted service use (OR = 3.09; CI 1.67–5.68). Somali Bantu (OR = 0.10; CI 0.02–0.44) and highly acculturated women (OR = 0.39; CI 0.17–0.86) had lower odds of service use. Conclusions. Achieving respectful care and outreach to women affected by FGM/C has contextual complexity. However, the clinical implications and insights provided may have broader impacts on advancing health equity for FGM/C-affected women.


2012 ◽  
Vol 19 (1) ◽  
pp. 271-278
Author(s):  
Susan Edwards

FEMALE GENITAL MUTILATION – VIOLENCE AGAINST GIRLS AND WOMEN  AS A  PARTICULAR SOCIAL GROUPZainab Esther Fornah was fifteen years old when on 15th March 2003, as an unaccompanied minor, she arrived at UK’s Gatwick airport claiming asylum. As she was a child she was taken into the care of West Sussex Social Services Child Asylum Team. She had fled Sierra Leone where she had been captured by rebels, who had killed her family, and was repeatedly raped.  She did not want to return to her uncle’s village fearing that she would be forcibly genitally mutilated, as was customary practice. Whilst her father was alive he was able to protect her from this practice. Female genital mutilation, has variously been described as female circumcision and as clitoridectomy, as if to render benign this very specific inhumane habituated practice against females. It involves cutting away the clitoris, labia minora, labia majora and vulva of a female. The area remaining is then sewn together leaving a small aperture to allow for menstruation and urination. This maiming is often perpetrated without anaesthetic and some children do not survive. The World Health Organisation defines this particular form of torture, somewhat blandly, as “the partial or complete removal of the external female genitalia or other injury to the female genital organs whether for cultural or any other non-therapeutic reason.


2020 ◽  
Vol 28 (10) ◽  
pp. 697-708
Author(s):  
Juliet Albert ◽  
Mary Wells

Objectives To identify the presenting characteristics, needs and clinical management of non-pregnant women with female genital mutilation who attended the Sunflower clinic, a midwife-led specialist service. Methods This was a retrospective case series review examining referral patterns, clinical findings and subsequent management between 1 April 2018 and 31 March 2019.The review was conducted at a multi-disciplinary female genital mutilation clinic for non-pregnant women aged 18 years and over in West London. Results There were 182 attendances at the clinic (88 new patients; 94 follow-up appointments). Almost half (52%) had type 3 mutilation, 32% had type 2; 9% had a history of type 3; 5% had type 1; one had type 4 and one declined assessment. A total of 35 women (40%) disclosed at least one psychological symptom (such as depression, anxiety, flashbacks, nightmares) during initial consultation. Conclusions Non-pregnant women attending female genital mutilation services present with a wide range of psychological and physical problems. Holistic woman-centred models of care appear to facilitate access to deinfibulation and counselling, which in turn may reduce long-term costs to the NHS. Safeguarding is an intrinsic part of midwives' work and is sometimes complex. The authors recommend a revision of the World Health Organization classifications to specify partial or total removal of the clitoral glans (rather than the clitoris as a whole) as this is inaccurate and may have a negative psychological impact for women.


Sign in / Sign up

Export Citation Format

Share Document