scholarly journals Sistemática y evolución del género Yucca (Agavaceae): evidencias de análisis nunfológicos y moleculares

2017 ◽  
pp. 77 ◽  
Author(s):  
Karen H. Clary ◽  
Beryl B. Simpson
Keyword(s):  
United States ◽  
Chloroplast Genome ◽  
Nuclear Genome ◽  
Its Region ◽  
The United States ◽  
Perennial Species ◽  
Molecular Analyses ◽  
Traditional Sense ◽  
Reproductive Characters ◽  
Chloroplast Phylogeny

Yucca L. (the Desert Soaptree, Agavaceae) consists of 45 perennial species distributed primarily in the deserts of Mexico and the United States. Although several taxonomic treatments of yuccas exist; the-phylogeny of the group is poorly known. It is unclear which taxa retain primitive characters and how characters have evolved. In addition, relationships of taxa within the genus are uncertain. We compare our phylogeny based upon reproductive characters with a chloroplast phylogeny (Hanson and Rieseberg, 1991 ; Hanson, 1993) and with data from the ITS region of the nuclear genome (Bogler, this volume). The molecular analyses of the chloroplast genome by Hanson and Rieseberg (1991) led to a phylogeny only partially congruent with the traditional morphology-based phylogeny (McKelvey, 1938, 1947) because the cpDNA analysis indicated that chloroplast capture among distantly related, sympatric/parapatric species has been a factor in the evolution of the group. Our results indicate that Yucca in the traditional sense is paraphyletic, that sect. Chaenocarpa is more basal than sect. Yucca ( =Sarcocarpa), and that Yucca (=Hesperoyucca) whipplei falls outside of Yucca.

scholarly journals Molecular Analyses of Colletotrichum Species from Almond and Other Fruits

2000 ◽  
Vol 90 (6) ◽  
pp. 608-614 ◽  
Author(s):  
Stanley Freeman ◽  
Dror Minz ◽  
Edouard Jurkevitch ◽  
Marcel Maymon ◽  
Ezra Shabi
Keyword(s):  
United States ◽  
Sequence Analysis ◽  
Its Region ◽  
The United States ◽  
Morphological Identification ◽  
Molecular Analyses ◽  
Colletotrichum Species ◽  
Morphological Criteria ◽  
Colletotrichum Spp ◽  
Polymerase Chain

Isolates of Colletotrichum spp. from almond, avocado, and strawberry from Israel and isolates of the pink subpopulation from almond from the United States were characterized by various molecular methods and compared with morphological identification. Taxon-specific primer analysis grouped the avocado isolates within the species C. gloeosporioides and the U.S. almond and Israeli strawberry isolates within the species C. acutatum. However, the Israeli almond isolates, previously identified morphologically as C. gloeosporioides, reacted with C. acutatum-specific primers. Arbitrarily primed polymerase chain reaction and A+T-rich DNA analyses determined that each population from almond and strawberry was distinct and clonal. Sequence analysis of the complete internal transcribed spacer (ITS) region (ITS 1–5.8S–ITS 2) revealed a similarity of between 97.03 and 98.72% among almond isolates from Israel, C. acutatum almond isolates from the United States, and C. acutatum strawberry isolates from Israel. Similarity of the above populations to that of C. gloeosporioides of avocado was between 92.42 and 92.86%. DNA sequence analysis of the entire ITS region supported the phylogeny inferred from the ITS 1 tree of 14 different Colletotrichum species. Although morphological criteria indicated that the Israeli isolates from almond are unique, this population was grouped within the C. acutatum species according to molecular analyses.

scholarly journals First Report of Leaf Blight and Stem Canker of Pachysandra terminalis Caused by Pseudonectria pachysandricola in Korea

Plant Disease ◽  
2012 ◽  
Vol 96 (2) ◽  
pp. 287-287
Author(s):  
K. S. Han ◽  
J. H. Park ◽  
S. E. Cho ◽  
H. D. Shin
Keyword(s):  
United States ◽  
Its Region ◽  
Stem Canker ◽  
The United States ◽  
Culture Collection ◽  
Leaf Blight ◽  
First Report ◽  
Cornell University ◽  
Plastic Bags ◽  
Young Leaves

Pachysandra terminalis Siebold & Zucc., known as Japanese pachysandra, is a creeping evergreen perennial belonging to the family Buxaceae. In April 2011, hundreds of plants showing symptoms of leaf blight and stem canker with nearly 100% incidence were found in a private garden in Suwon, Korea. Plants with the same symptoms were found in Seoul in May and Hongcheon in August. Affected leaves contained tan-to-yellow brown blotches. Stem and stolon cankers first appeared as water soaked and developed into necrotic lesions. Sporodochia were solitary, erumpent, circular, 50 to 150 μm in diameter, salmon-colored, pink-orange when wet, and with or without setae. Setae were hyaline, acicular, 60 to 100 μm long, and had a base that was 4 to 6 μm wide. Conidiophores were in a dense fascicle, not branched, hyaline, aseptate or uniseptate, and 8 to 20 × 2 to 3.5 μm. Conidia were long, ellipsoid to cylindric, fusiform, rounded at the apex, subtruncate at the base, straight to slightly bent, guttulate, hyaline, aseptate, 11 to 26 × 2.5 to 4.0 μm. A single-conidial isolate formed cream-colored colonies that turned into salmon-colored colonies on potato dextrose agar (PDA). Morphological and cultural characteristics of the fungus were consistent with previous reports of Pseudonectria pachysandricola B.O. Dodge (1,3,4). Voucher specimens were housed at Korea University (KUS). Two isolates, KACC46110 (ex KUS-F25663) and KACC46111 (ex KUS-F25683), were accessioned in the Korean Agricultural Culture Collection. Fungal DNA was extracted with DNeasy Plant Mini DNA Extraction Kits (Qiagen Inc., Valencia, CA). The complete internal transcribed spacer (ITS) region of rDNA was amplified with the primers ITS1/ITS4 and sequenced using ABI Prism 337 automatic DNA sequencer (Applied Biosystems, Foster, CA). The resulting sequence of 487 bp was deposited in GenBank (Accession No. JN797821). This showed 100% similarity with a sequence of P. pachysandricola from the United States (HQ897807). Isolate KACC46110 was used in pathogenicity tests. Inoculum was prepared by harvesting conidia from 2-week-old cultures on PDA. Ten young leaves wounded with needles were sprayed with conidial suspensions (~1 × 106 conidia/ml). Ten young leaves that served as the control were treated with sterile distilled water. Plants were covered with plastic bags to maintain a relative humidity of 100% at 25 ± 2°C for 24 h. Typical symptoms of brown spots appeared on the inoculated leaves 4 days after inoculation and were identical to the ones observed in the field. P. pachysandricola was reisolated from 10 symptomatic leaf tissues, confirming Koch's postulates. No symptoms were observed on control plants. Previously, the disease was reported in the United States, Britain, Japan, and the Czech Republic (2,3), but not in Korea. To our knowledge, this is the first report of P. pachysandricola on Pachysandra terminalis in Korea. Since this plant is popular and widely planted in Korea, this disease could cause significant damage to nurseries and the landscape. References: (1) B. O. Dodge. Mycologia 36:532, 1944. (2) D. F. Farr and A. Y. Rossman. Fungal Databases. Systematic Mycology and Microbiology Laboratory, ARS, USDA. Retrieved from http://nt.ars-grin.gov/fungaldatabases/ , September 24, 2011. (3) I. Safrankova. Plant Prot. Sci. 43:10, 2007. (4) W. A. Sinclair and H. H. Lyon. Disease of Trees and Shrubs. 2nd ed. Cornell University Press, Ithaca, NY, 2005.

scholarly journals First Report of Postharvest Fruit Rot in Persimmon Caused by Phacidiopycnis washingtonensis in Italy

Plant Disease ◽  
2010 ◽  
Vol 94 (6) ◽  
pp. 788-788 ◽  
Author(s):  
A. Garibaldi ◽  
D. Bertetti ◽  
M. T. Amatulli ◽  
M. L. Gullino
Keyword(s):  
United States ◽  
Its Region ◽  
The United States ◽  
Fruit Rot ◽  
Diospyros Kaki ◽  
Pathogenicity Test ◽  
Conidial Suspension ◽  
First Report ◽  
Pathogenicity Tests ◽  
Phacidiopycnis Washingtonensis

Persimmon (Diospyros kaki L.) is widely grown in Italy, the leading producer in Europe. In the fall of 2009, a previously unknown rot was observed on 3% of fruit stored at temperatures between 5 and 15°C in Torino Province (northern Italy). The decayed area was elliptical, firm, and appeared light brown to dark olive-green. It was surrounded by a soft margin. The internal decayed area appeared rotten, brown, and surrounded by bleached tissue. On the decayed tissue, black pycnidia that were partially immersed and up to 0.5 mm in diameter were observed. Light gray conidia produced in the pycnidia were unicellular, ovoid or lacriform, and measured 3.9 to 6.7 × 2.3 to 3.5 (average 5.0 × 2.9) μm. Fragments (approximately 2 mm) were taken from the margin of the internal diseased tissues, cultured on potato dextrose agar (PDA), and incubated at temperatures between 23 and 26°C under alternating light and darkness. Colonies of the fungus initially appeared ash colored and then turned to dark greenish gray. After 14 days of growth, pycnidia and conidia similar to those described on fruit were produced. The internal transcribed spacer (ITS) region of rDNA was amplified using the primers ITS4/ITS6 and sequenced. BLAST analysis (1) of the 502-bp segment showed a 100% similarity with the sequence of Phacidiopycnis washingtonensis Xiao & J.D. Rogers (GenBank Accession No. AY608648). The nucleotide sequence has been assigned the GenBank Accession No. GU949537. Pathogenicity tests were performed by inoculating three persimmon fruits after surface disinfesting in 1% sodium hypochlorite and wounding. Mycelial disks (10 mm in diameter), obtained from PDA cultures of one strain were placed on wounds. Three control fruits were inoculated with plain PDA. Fruits were incubated at 10 ± 1°C. The first symptoms developed 6 days after the artificial inoculation. After 15 days, the rot was very evident and P. washingtonensis was consistently reisolated. Noninoculated fruit remained healthy. The pathogenicity test was performed twice. Since P. washingtonensis was first identified in the United States on decayed apples (2), ‘Fuji’, ‘Gala’, ‘Golden Delicious’, ‘Granny Smith’, ‘Red Chief’, and ‘Stark Delicious’, apple fruits also were artificially inoculated with a conidial suspension (1 × 106 CFU/ml) of the pathogen obtained from PDA cultures. For each cultivar, three surface-disinfested fruit were wounded and inoculated, while three others served as mock-inoculated (sterile water) controls. Fruits were stored at temperatures ranging from 10 to 15°C. First symptoms appeared after 7 days on all the inoculated apples. After 14 days, rot was evident on all fruit inoculated with the fungus, and P. washingtonensis was consistently reisolated. Controls remained symptomless. To our knowledge, this is the first report of the presence of P. washingtonensis on persimmon in Italy, as well as worldwide. The occurrence of postharvest fruit rot on apple caused by P. washingtonensis was recently described in the United States (3). In Italy, the economic importance of the disease on persimmon fruit is currently limited, although the pathogen could represent a risk for apple. References: (1) S. F. Altschul et al. Nucleic Acids Res. 25:3389, 1997. (2) Y. K. Kim and C. L. Xiao. Plant Dis. 90:1376, 2006. (3) C. L. Xiao et al. Mycologia 97:473, 2005.

scholarly journals First Report of Leaf Spot of Sesame Caused by Xanthomonas sp. In the United States

Plant Disease ◽  
2012 ◽  
Vol 96 (8) ◽  
pp. 1222-1222 ◽  
Author(s):  
T. Isakeit ◽  
B. T. Hassett ◽  
K. L. Ong
Keyword(s):  
United States ◽  
Leaf Area ◽  
Its Region ◽  
The United States ◽  
Pcr Analysis ◽  
Sterile Water ◽  
First Report ◽  
Genomic Dna Isolation ◽  
Leaf Spots ◽  
Mist Chamber

In July 2010 in Texas, extensive leaf spots (10 to 30% leaf area affected) occurred on a commercial planting of sesame (Sesamum indicum L.) in Hidalgo County and to a lesser extent (1 to 5% leaf area) on leaves of several varieties in experimental trials in Colorado and Victoria Counties. The leaf spots were light to dark brown, somewhat circular, and 1 to 3 mm in diameter. A symptomatic leaf from each of three to five plants per county was sampled for isolations. Leaves were sprayed with 70% ethanol and immediately blotted dry with a paper towel. The margins of spots (2 mm2) were excised with a scalpel and placed in a drop of sterile water for 5 min. Drops were streaked on nutrient agar (NA) and incubated at 30°C. The 12 isolations consistently yielded gram-negative, rod-shaped bacteria with yellow, translucent colonies that were visible after 2 days of incubation. The DNA of 11 isolates was extracted with the Norgen (Thorold, ON) Bacterial genomic DNA isolation kit (Cat. #17900) and the ITS region was amplified by 16S uni 1330 and 23S uni 322 anti primers (1). PCR products were treated with the ZymoResearch (Irvine, CA) DNA clean & concentrator kit (Cat. #D4003) and sequenced. With the NCBI database, a BLAST search of the 1,100 bp amplicons showed 93 to 99% identity with pathovars of either Xanthomonas oryzae or X. axonopodis (GenBank Accession Nos. CP003057.1 and CP002914.1, respectively). Amplicon sequences of the sesame isolates were deposited in GenBank as Accession Nos. JQ975037 through JQ975047. The reported species on sesame is X. campestris pv. sesami (2). To fulfill Koch's postulates, potted sesame plants (var. Sesaco 25), 15 to 20 cm tall, were sprayed until runoff with a suspension of bacteria (106 to 107 CFU/ml) from a 2-day-old NA culture. All 12 isolates were evaluated, with five to seven plants per isolate. Plants were maintained in a mist chamber in a greenhouse at 27 to 30°C and 100% relative humidity. The pathogenicity trial was repeated once. Leaf spots were first seen 7 days after inoculation and were prevalent 14 days after inoculation. All 12 isolates were pathogenic. There were no symptoms on leaves sprayed with sterile water. Bacteria that produced colonies consistent with Xanthomonas were reisolated on NA from symptomatic leaves but not from controls. The identities of three isolates were reconfirmed with PCR analysis and sequencing. In 2007, more than 2,000 ha of sesame were grown in the continental United States, with 80% of that in Texas. Currently, acreage of shatter-free varieties of sesame is increasing in arid areas of Texas, Oklahoma, and Kansas. In such areas, the yield impact of this disease is likely to be minimal, except in years with above-average rainfall. To our knowledge, this is the first report of this disease in the United States. References: (1) E. R. Gonçalves and Y. B. Rosato. Int. J. Syst. Evol. Microbiol. 52:355, 2002. (2) J. M. Young et al., New Zealand J. Agric. Res. 21:153, 1978.

scholarly journals First Report of Botrytis Blight Caused by Botrytis cinerea on Platycodon grandiflorum in Italy

Plant Disease ◽  
2009 ◽  
Vol 93 (9) ◽  
pp. 969-969
Author(s):  
A. Garibaldi ◽  
D. Bertetti ◽  
M. L. Gullino
Keyword(s):  
United States ◽  
Botrytis Cinerea ◽  
Its Region ◽  
The United States ◽  
Fluorescent Light ◽  
Pathogenicity Test ◽  
Commonwealth Mycological Institute ◽  
Platycodon Grandiflorum ◽  
First Report ◽  
Bedding Plant

Platycodon grandiflorum (balloon flower), a perennial plant belonging to the Campanulaceae family, is widely grown as a bedding plant in temperate gardens. This species is characterized by the ability to bloom profusely throughout the summer into early fall and for its white to blue and pink flowers. In September 2008, symptoms of a previously unknown blight were observed in six gardens located in the Biella Province of northern Italy. When the disease developed, temperatures ranged between 15 and 22°C with frequent rains (149.8 mm of rainfall registered in September 2008 by the meteorological station of Oropa, located in the same area in which the disease appeared). Initially, leaves and petioles appeared chlorotic. Subsequently, lesions developed on the stems and flowers were sometimes affected. In each garden examined, approximately 50% of the plants were affected by the disease. A soft, gray mycelium was observed on symptomatic tissues, especially the stems. Severely infected leaves and stems eventually became completely rotted and later desiccated. Diseased tissue was excised from affected leaves, immersed in a solution containing 1% sodium hypochlorite for 10 s, and then cultured on potato dextrose agar (PDA) medium. A fungus developed that produced abundant mycelium on PDA medium when incubated under constant fluorescent light at 22 ± 1°C. Numerous sclerotia were produced on PDA plates incubated for 20 days at 8 ± 1°C. Sclerotia were dark, irregular, and measured 1 to 3.5 × 0.9 to 2.5 (average 2.1 × 1.5) mm. Conidia were smooth, ash colored, unicellular, ovoid, and measured 11 to 19 × 7 to 13 (average 15 × 11) μm. These morphological features were typical of those described for Botrytis cinerea (2). The internal transcribed spacer (ITS) region of rDNA was amplified using primers ITS4/ITS6 and sequenced. BLAST analysis (1) of the 539-bp segment showed 100% similarity with the sequence of Botryotinia fuckeliana (perfect stage of B. cinerea). The nucleotide sequence has been assigned the GenBank Accession No. GQ149480. Pathogenicity tests were performed by placing 1-cm2 fragments removed from PDA cultures of B. cinerea isolated from balloon flower on leaves of healthy potted P. grandiflorum plants (4-month-old). Five fragments were placed on each plant. Plants inoculated with PDA alone served as controls. Ten plants per treatment were used. Plants were covered with plastic bags for 5 days after inoculation and maintained in a greenhouse at temperatures between 18 and 23°C. The first foliar lesions developed on leaves 3 days after inoculation, and after 5 days, 80% of the leaves were severely infected. As the infection progressed after the inoculation, the stems also became infected. Control plants remained healthy. B. cinerea was consistently reisolated from leaf and stem lesions. The pathogenicity test was completed twice. To our knowledge, this is the first report of the presence of B. cinerea on P. grandiflorum in Italy, as well as in Europe. Blight on balloon flower attributed to Botrytis spp. was previously reported in the United States (3). References: (1) S. F. Altschul et al. Nucleic Acids Res. 25:3389, 1997. (2) M. B. Ellis. Dematiaceous Hyphomycetes. Commonwealth Mycological Institute, Kew, England, 1971. (3) D. F. Farr et al. Fungi on Plants and Plant Products in the United States. The American Phytopathological Society, St. Paul, MN, 1989.

South Korea, 1968–1980

2018 ◽  
pp. 110-131
Author(s):  
Alexander Lanoszka
Keyword(s):  
United States ◽  
South Korea ◽  
Nuclear Weapons ◽  
Its Region ◽  
The United States ◽  
Conventional Wisdom ◽  
Security Guarantees ◽  
Considerable Pressure

The chapter analyzes South Korea’s aborted efforts to acquire nuclear weapons in the 1970s. It shows that South Korea inferred the strength of its security guarantees on the basis of American forward deployed conventional forces in its region. Yet this chapter also scrutinises the conventional wisdom that the United States successfully applied considerable pressure on South Korea to extract non-proliferation commitments. Although the United States did apply non-military levers of coercion against South Korea, whether the significant use of these levers was definitive in curbing South Korea’s nuclear weapons interest remains unclear.

scholarly journals Geographic Distribution and rDNA-ITS Region Sequence Diversity of Waitea circinata var. circinata Isolated from Annual Bluegrass in the United States

Plant Disease ◽  
2009 ◽  
Vol 93 (9) ◽  
pp. 906-911 ◽  
Author(s):  
Chi-Min Chen ◽  
Karla A. de la Cerda ◽  
John E. Kaminski ◽  
Greg W. Douhan ◽  
Francis P. Wong
Keyword(s):  
United States ◽  
New York ◽  
Rhode Island ◽  
Geographic Distribution ◽  
Rflp Analysis ◽  
Its Region ◽  
The United States ◽  
Annual Bluegrass ◽  
Rdna Its ◽  
Waitea Circinata

Waitea circinata var. circinata is the causal agent of brown ring patch, an emergent disease of turfgrass in the United States. Forty-two isolates from annual bluegrass were obtained from California, Connecticut, Idaho, Illinois, Massachusetts, New York, Ohio, Oregon, and Rhode Island. Almost all isolates produced white to orange sclerotia (bulbils), 2 to 5 mm in size, that turned dark brown after 21 days on ¼-strength potato dextrose agar. The ribosomal DNA internal transcribed spacer regions and 5.8S region (ITS) were analyzed by restriction fragment length polymorphism (RFLP) analysis using MspI and sequencing to attempt identification of the isolates. Some isolates were heterozygous at the MspI restriction site, results not found in previous reports using the RFLP technique for identification. Four additional nucleotide positions were found to be variable within ITS based on sequence analysis, including two indels and two additional heterozygous positions. A total of 17 ITS haplotypes were found, and there was no obvious relationship between ITS haplotype and the geographic distribution of the isolates. Results of this work indicate that W. circinata var. circinata is present in multiple states and provide an initial understanding of the diversity of the pathogen in the United States.

On the Identity of the Weedy Bittercresses (Cardamine : Brassicaceae) in United States Nurseries: Evidence from Molecules and Morphology

Weed Science ◽  
2011 ◽  
Vol 59 (1) ◽  
pp. 123-135 ◽  
Author(s):  
Angela R. Post ◽  
Regina Ali ◽  
Alexander Krings ◽  
Jenny Xiang ◽  
Brian R. Sosinski ◽  
...  
Keyword(s):  
United States ◽  
New Zealand ◽  
Its Region ◽  
The United States ◽  
Nuclear Ribosomal Dna ◽  
Molecular Evidence ◽  
Herbarium Specimens ◽  
Interacting Protein ◽  
Cardamine Flexuosa ◽  
Container Nurseries

Bittercress (Brassicaceae) is one of the most prolific and costly weeds of the container nursery industry. Bittercress accessions from container nurseries throughout the major production zones in the United States were examined and compared with herbarium specimens. The identity of these weedy bittercress species were further explored using sequences of the nuclear ribosomal DNA (nrDNA) internal transcribed spacer (ITS) region and the nrDNA region for the COP1-interacting protein 7 (CIP7). Four species of bittercress were detected in the nursery industry of the United States, including New Zealand bittercress, hairy bittercress, flexuous bittercress, and little bittercress. The taxon referred to here as Cardamine flexuosa With. (flexuous bittercress) likely contains two genotypes previously reported as European C. flexuosa and Asian C. flexuosa. Phylogenetic relationships between the four species we examined, particularly in relationship to flexuous bittercress, were not fully resolved by the molecular evidence generated for this study. New Zealand bittercress is nonnative and does not appear in current keys to the species for the United States. Flexuous bittercress is also an alien species, which appears in some U.S. keys but not in all. To aid nurserymen and botanists in identification of these four closely related bittercress species, a key was developed and is accompanied by detailed descriptions and illustrations.

Australia: A Mid-level Imperialist in the Asia-Pacific

2015 ◽  
Vol 23 (3) ◽  
pp. 65-100 ◽  
Author(s):  
Tom Bramble
Keyword(s):  
United States ◽  
British Empire ◽  
Capital Accumulation ◽  
Foreign Capital ◽  
Its Region ◽  
The United States ◽  
Asia Pacific ◽  
Military Power ◽  
National Interests ◽  
Traditional Image

Australia, long seen as a remote outpost of the British Empire in the South Pacific and more recently as a loyal lieutenant of Washington, does not fit the traditional image of an imperialist country. Nonetheless, while it may not be one of the big three or four world powers, it is, I will argue, a mid-level imperialist that leverages its alliance with the United States to project power over its region. It has been and remains reliant on foreign capital, but it is also a wealthy independent centre of capital accumulation and military power with its own national interests and with an increasing financial footprint overseas.

The Landscape of Futurelessness: An Interview with Brett Story

2018 ◽  
Vol 72 (1) ◽  
pp. 50-57
Author(s):  
Scott MacDonald
Keyword(s):  
United States ◽  
New York ◽  
New York State ◽  
The United States ◽  
Prison System ◽  
York State ◽  
State Prison ◽  
Central New York ◽  
Traditional Sense ◽  
American Prison

Canadian Brett Story's most recent film, The Prison in Twelve Landscapes (2016), explores the American prison system, as well as the traditional sense of “landscape,” in an unusual way: except for the film's final shot, a drive-by of Attica State Prison nestled in the countryside of west-central New York State, we see no prisoners and no prison buildings—and few spaces we could call landscapes. Story's panoramic film reveals the multitude of ways in which the prison system is hidden in plain sight throughout the United States. In Scott MacDonald's interview with Story, the filmmaker explains the film's unusual approach and structure—as well as the struggle involved in getting the film made. Story's modest budget is the ultimate irony of The Prison in Twelve Landscapes, given the fact that the American prison system is the world's most extensive, and no doubt most expensive, system of incarceration on the planet.

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