scholarly journals Wołosi/Vlasi z terenów Hercegowiny w świetle defterów osmańskich z XV i XVI wieku

2019 ◽  
Vol 25 ◽  
pp. 219-249
Author(s):  
Ilona Czamańska
Keyword(s):  
Sixteenth Century ◽  
Fifteenth Century ◽  
The State ◽  
Economic Research ◽  
Flat Rate ◽  
Additional Burden ◽  
The Status ◽  
Pastoral Management ◽  
Almost All ◽  
Excellent Source

Defter's are an excellent source for historians, especially in demographic and socio-economic research, they are also very useful in researching the Vlachian communities.Analysis of material contained in Ottoman defter's from the Herzegovina area leads to the following conclusions:1. In the area of Herzegovina, in the second half of the fifteenth century, Vlachs lived in a mostly nomadic lifestyle. Their number was at least sixty thousand people.2. In the second half of the fifteenth century, many abandoned villages were recorded. Abandoned villages were gradually settled by migratory Vlachs, which contributed to their change of lifestyle on semi-settled and settled. In 1585, Vlachs - shepherds who were not associated with a village were rare.3. In the Ottoman state, Vlachs those who lead an nomadic way of living, as well as those living in the Vlachian villages, were tax-favored, paid only a lump grazing tax for the state (a filuria with allowances), and did not pay any benefits to the timar owner. In the event that they served as derbenci's or vojnuc's, they were exempted from all taxes.4. Settling in the former agricultural villages, in particular related to undertaking agricultural activities, was most often associated with an additional burden of tithing for the sipahi. Departure from pastoralism meant degradation to a group of raya, most often in these villages mixed-agricultural-pastoral management was conducted. Newly settled villages rarely received the status of the vlachian villages, because such status freed residents from additional benefits even in the case of agricultural classes.5. The flat-rate grazing tax, filuria, in the fifteenth century had a fixed value and equaled 45 akçe, while at the end of the sixteenth century it was different for various Vlachs groups and could range from 60 to 200 akçe.  Considering the fact that additional fees for sheep or tents were liquidated and that the value of employment fell akçe significantly compared to the fifteenth century, the real amount of taxes did not increase, and in some cases it decreased.6. Not much on the basis of defilers can be said about the language used by the Herzegovina Vlachs. In defeats from the fifteenth century they bear mostly Slavic names, but sometimes there are also names only in the Vlachs: Radu, Bratul, Dabija, the same also applies to local names.7. Gradually, Islamization processes took place. In the fifteenth century, they are almost invisible among the Vlachs, almost all of them wore Christian names. At the end of the sixteenth century, a significant percentage of Vlachs wore Muslim names. The Islamization process seems to be faster among the Vlachs settled than the Vlachs nomads, but there is no rule.8. In the light of the defters in the area of Herzegovina, there is no difference between Muslims and non-Muslims in burdens to the state, but defters do not include the cizye, or headship, collected from non-Muslims.

scholarly journals History as Science: The Fifteenth-Century Debate in Arabic and Persian

2017 ◽  
Vol 21 (3) ◽  
pp. 216-240 ◽  
Author(s):  
Christopher Markiewicz
Keyword(s):  
Sixteenth Century ◽  
Fifteenth Century ◽  
Ottoman Empire ◽  
Historical Inquiry ◽  
Geographic Space ◽  
The Status

In the fifteenth century, scholars writing in Arabic and Persian debated the nature of historical inquiry and its place among the sciences. While the motivations and perspectives of the various scholars differed, the terms and parameters of the debate remained remarkably fixed and focused, even as it unfolded across a vast geographic space between Herat, Cairo, and Constantinople. This article examines the contours of this debate and the relationships between five historians working on these issues. Although the scholars who considered these questions frequently arrived at different conclusions, they all firmly agreed, in contrast to previous doubt regarding the status of history, that historical inquiry did indeed constitute a distinct science requiring its own particular method. Accordingly, the debate and its conclusions helped cement the place of history within the broader pantheon of the sciences as conceived by scholars in the Ottoman Empire from the sixteenth century onwards.

scholarly journals Brief Epidemiological Report on Chikungunya Outbreak in Bihar, India in 2017: Implications for Control

2019 ◽  
pp. 1-6
Author(s):  
Ragini Mishra ◽  
Navin Mishra
Keyword(s):  
Disease Surveillance ◽  
Age Groups ◽  
Case Fatality ◽  
State Level ◽  
Health Department ◽  
The State ◽  
Control Measures ◽  
Age Group ◽  
The Status ◽  
Almost All

Aims: The present study was done to identify the epidemiology of the disease outbreak in Bihar in 2017 and suggest remedial measures for the prevention of possible future outbreaks of Chikungunya. Study Design:  Daily reports on Chikungunya were collected in prescribed format from the District Surveillance Unit, Integrated Disease Surveillance Programme (IDSP) that included case details from Govt. Medical Colleges and various Private Hospitals in the State. Place and Duration of Study: Index case of Chikungunya was reported in Bihar, India on 15 Feb 2017. After that, few scattered cases were reported till 23 Aug 2017. Cases started increasing from 24 Aug 2017 onwards. From 15 Feb till 31 Dec 2017, total 1223 cases were reported from 32 districts in Bihar. Methodology: The cases were analysed concerning time, place and person. Daily reporting on the health conditions of the cases and the status of the control measures like fogging and larvicidal spray in the affected area was monitored at the State level. Results: Case Fatality Rate (CFR) due to the disease was Nil in the State. The outbreak peak laid from 3-Nov to 12-Nov when 218 cases were reported. Out of 1223 cases, 100% cases were ELISA confirmed. Almost all age groups were affected, but the frequency was greater in the age group 21-30 (25%)> 31-40 (21%)>11-20 (19%). Males (61%) were more affected than females (39%). Out of the total 1223 cases, 100% of the cases were reported from Govt. institutions. State Health Department, Govt. of Bihar took many measures to limit the outbreak, and through strengthening the surveillance and response activities, transmission of the disease was curtailed in the State.     Conclusion: Patna district was most affected followed by Nalanda and Vaishali. Young adults of age group 21-30 were most affected. Males were more affected than females.

The Last Pharmacopeia

2020 ◽  
pp. 23-48
Author(s):  
He Bian
Keyword(s):  
Sixteenth Century ◽  
Fifteenth Century ◽  
Eleventh Century ◽  
Pharmacological Action ◽  
The State ◽  
Imperial Court ◽  
Northern Song ◽  
Available Technology ◽  
Field Of Inquiry ◽  
Book Culture

This chapter traces the decentralization of prestige associated with the state-commissioned pharmacopeia up until the end of the sixteenth century. It argues that the decentralization of authority had already been well under way since the eleventh century, when the Northern Song court did commission multiple bencao pharmacopeias. Proceeding chronologically, three trends stand out in this examination of bencao as a field of inquiry. First, the Song state could not exert much control over these elaborate texts in transmission. A variety of authors, acting independently of the imperial court, made changes to the official edition and promoted their work through the manuscript or the newly available technology of printing. Second, major medical innovations during the Jin-Yuan period inspired physicians to explain pharmacological action in cosmic, systematic terms. Lastly, regional official publishing—a hallmark of Ming book culture—made the elaborate Song pharmacopeia widely available in print from the mid-fifteenth century. As a result, an unprecedented number of texts emerged that attempted to integrate cosmic pharmacology with the pharmacopeia, creating new discourses and textual genres.

The Kingdom of Eunuchs under the ‘Abbasids

2019 ◽  
pp. 142-195
Author(s):  
Taef El-Azhari
Keyword(s):  
Public Perception ◽  
The State ◽  
The Political ◽  
Significant Period ◽  
Different Types ◽  
The Status ◽  
Almost All

This chapter analyse the status of eunuchs in Islam, compared to other civilizations. One monitor the different types of eunuchs and their evolution from serving in the harem section under early Abbasids to become intrusted with intelligence, insignia among other vital posts. The significant period of caliph al-Amin d. 813, where one see his love affairs with eunuchs and public perception to such behaviour. One do examine how third gendered eunuchs became army commanders, dominating the political affairs of the empire in early 10th cntury. That is in full collaboration with royal mothers, concubines, among other courtiers. How legendary Mu’nis al-Khadim reinstated a caliph, and toppled another for his own interests, although he has no biological future. Such domination by eunuchs, made them occupy almost all top positions in the state. The result, was the declaration of the first sole eunuch as a governor of a Muslim state in 966; Kafur of Egypt. That took place with some resentment from some intellectuals, but chroniclers did not report much dismay to the phenomena.

scholarly journals JīVANMUKTI IN HINDU TANTRISM

2019 ◽  
pp. 77-86
Author(s):  
Sergei V. Pakhomov ◽  
Keyword(s):  
The State ◽  
The Other ◽  
Objective World ◽  
The World ◽  
Complete Independence ◽  
The Status ◽  
Ideological Dimension ◽  
The One ◽  
Almost All ◽  
Supreme Deity

The concept of jīvanmukti, “liberation during life”, arose in Advaita Vedānta as a response to the paradigm of “disembodied” liberation (videhamukti). The condition of jīvanmukti is highly appreciated in Tantrism. The concept of jīvanmukti often includes the meanings of identification with the absolute, the supreme deity. There are different kinds of jīvanmukti, for example, active and passive ones. The state of jīvanmukti is the complete independence, highest ideal, spiritual perfection. Jīvanmukta considers the entire objective world to be a reflection of the higher Self. The status of jīvanmukta can have an ideological dimension when it is opposed to traditions that are considered ineffective in Tantra. The acquisition of jīvanmukti is primarily due to spiritual knowledge. On the one hand, knowledge is a certain state of the carrier of knowledge himself; on the other hand, it is always knowledge of “something”. Although jīvanmukti can be reached through almost all tantric practices, there is a certain gradation of the time spent on it. The man reaches liberation during life not in isolation from the world. Outwardly, jīvanmukta cannot stand out among ordinary members of society; all his uniqueness is hidden inside his consciousness.

The Monetary Pattern of Sixteenth-Century Coinage: The Prothero Lecture 1970

1971 ◽  
Vol 21 ◽  
pp. 45-60 ◽  
Author(s):  
P. Grierson
Keyword(s):  
Sixteenth Century ◽  
Fifteenth Century ◽  
The Status ◽  
To Come ◽  
Late Fifteenth

THE equipment of any well-appointed counting house in the late sixteenth century would include, as a matter of course, one or more money-books illustrating and evaluating all coins likely to come its master's way. Such money-books had originated in the late fifteenth century, when the invention of printing had made it possible to illustrate the official ordonnances, tariffs, or placards listing coins approved for circulation and giving their legal values. The earliest ones were no more than flysheets: a Flemish one of 1499 illustrating the nine ‘good florins of the Electors’, an English one of 1504 illustrating two English groats and a Flemish double patard. In the early sixteenth century these flysheets grew into small brochures, as their publishers found it convenient to take account of coins not mentioned in official proclamations but found commonly in circulation. They were, in fact, becoming illustrated versions of the privately compiled lists of coins and values which are known to us from the time of Pegolotti onwards. In due course they attained the status of substantial volumes, their format being often made tall and narrow, like that of account ledgers, so that they could stand with these on the merchant's shelves.

The Decline of Oligarchy in Seventeenth-Century Norwich

1974 ◽  
Vol 14 (1) ◽  
pp. 46-76 ◽  
Author(s):  
John T. Evans
Keyword(s):  
Seventeenth Century ◽  
Sixteenth Century ◽  
Fifteenth Century ◽  
General Pattern ◽  
Family Ties ◽  
Social Elite ◽  
Political Recruitment ◽  
Political Office ◽  
Provincial Capital ◽  
Almost All

The resurgence of oligarchies in England's provincial towns during the fifteenth century and their firm control over almost all aspects of civic life during the sixteenth century has received considerable attention and is apparently beyond dispute. The characteristic feature of this oligarchical control was the domination of the important civic offices by urban dynasties whose members practiced the most influential and lucrative trades, were the most affluent citizens, and were linked by close family ties. Comparatively few studies have been made of officeholders of the seventeenth century, especially for the period after 1660, yet the evidence so far accumulated suggests that officeholding remained the exclusive privilege of a closed social elite. Nevertheless, Norwich may provide an instructive exception. An examination of the pool of men eligible for political office in Norwich, the largest provincial capital, indicates that the door to political office was open to men of diverse social backgrounds and occupations to a greater extent than during the sixteenth century and apparently much more so than in the other large provincial capitals.Oligarchy may be defined as the possession and exercise of power by a few individuals either directly, as a consequence of holding the important political offices, or indirectly, as a consequence of controlling recruitment of officeholders and influencing their decisions. In the former case, which was the general pattern establishsed in those fifteenth and sixteenth-century towns which remained free from the intervention of territorial magnates, oligarchy implies further that the magistrates have either the exclusive privilege of appointing their own replacements or the ability to manipulate the mechanism of political recruitment involving a wider electorate through control of the processes of nomination and election of officeholders.

scholarly journals The Essence of the Customs Security and Its Place in the National Security System of the State

2020 ◽  
Vol 11 (514) ◽  
pp. 76-82
Author(s):  
O. V. Kostiana ◽  
Keyword(s):  
National Security ◽  
Economic Security ◽  
The State ◽  
Security System ◽  
Financial Security ◽  
The Status ◽  
Domestic Practice ◽  
Main Components ◽  
Almost All ◽  
Graphical Presentation

The article is aimed at determining the essence of the category of «customs security» and its place in the national security system of the State. The category of «customs security» and its main components are analyzed. Approaches to interpretation of this category are considered in line with the national legislation and in accordance with the views of leading domestic and foreign scholars. The wording on which it is advisable to rely in further research is defined. The adjacent category of «customs interests of the State» is considered in the context of the analysis of the category of «customs security», the main types of customs interests of Ukraine at the present stage are defined and grouped, also their graphical presentation is provided. It is determined that the scope of all customs interests of the State lies in the plane of achieving certain economic results and compliance with customs legislation by subjects of foreign economic activity and regulatory authorities. An important step of the State in this direction will be to consolidate the list of customs interests at the legislative level, because it still remains undocumented in Ukrainian legislative acts. The role and place of customs security of Ukraine in the national security system of the State are analyzed, which determines that customs security belongs to such part of national security as economic security. Although in the domestic practice of computing the level of economic security the customs security is not singled out as a separate part of economic security, the fact of communication of economic security with customs is indisputable, since the customs interests of the State, the status of protection of which forms customs security, lie in the economic plane. It is found out that customs security is associated with almost all components of economic security, but the closer link is observed between customs and financial security, as well as between customs and foreign security.

scholarly journals Problematyka badawcza przemysłu w geografii na tle nauk ekonomicznych

2008 ◽  
Vol 11 ◽  
pp. 46-52
Author(s):  
Paweł Czapliński
Keyword(s):  
Research Methods ◽  
Economic Geography ◽  
Status Quo ◽  
The State ◽  
Economic Research ◽  
Research Subject ◽  
Methodological Framework ◽  
The Status ◽  
Fresh Perspective ◽  
Strong Resemblance

Currently, there are many premises which invite a debate on the role and position of the geography of industry among geographic sciences, and – possibly above all – among the sciences researching the economic processes, especially those focusing on economic structures. It should be emphasized that, owing to the research subject, the scale of the research itself and the methodological framework, there is strong resemblance between geography of industry and economy of industry. There is, however, serious divergence of perception of both sciences by the society and the scientists themselves. Meanwhile, geography of science, if widely underrated, can offer a range of research possibilities very similar to that of economy of science. What it lacks is a certain fresh perspective and its own – not adopted – research methods. Thus, the future of the geography of science seems uncertain, because maintaining the status quo means the state of temporariness, and in a larger perspective – its scientific non-existence. There is a possibility, however, that consolidation of geographic sub-branches might occur under the name of economic geography. As a consequence, economic geography will be accepted as a legitimate science in the area of economic research.

scholarly journals Tamil

2004 ◽  
Vol 34 (1) ◽  
pp. 111-116 ◽  
Author(s):  
Elinor Keane
Keyword(s):  
Sri Lanka ◽  
Thirteenth Century ◽  
Tamil Nadu ◽  
The State ◽  
National Language ◽  
Social Variation ◽  
The Status ◽  
Almost All ◽  
Dravidian Language

Tamil is a Dravidian language spoken by 53 million speakers in India, according to census figures from 1991, predominantly in the state of Tamil Nadu. There are also sizeable communities of Tamil speakers elsewhere, including Sri Lanka, Malaysia and Singapore, in all of which it has the status of a national language. Tamil is diglossic, the formal or ‘literary’ variety still largely conforming to standards set in the thirteenth century by the Tamil grammarian Pavanandi. It is used in almost all written media, and also for certain high-register functions. In all other situations colloquial Tamil is used and is characterized by considerable regional and social variation.

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