Field Performance of a Solid Set Canopy Delivery System Configured for High-Density Tall Spindle Architecture Trained Apple Canopies

2021 ◽  
Vol 64 (6) ◽  
pp. 1735-1745
Author(s):  
Rajeev Sinha ◽  
Lav Khot ◽  
Gwen Hoheisel ◽  
Matthew Grieshop
Keyword(s):  
Delivery System ◽  
Spray Deposition ◽  
Low Cost ◽  
Vertical Plane ◽  
Apple Orchard ◽  
High Density ◽  
Growth Stages ◽  
List Type ◽  
Hollow Cone ◽  
Leaf Surfaces

HighlightsVariants of a solid set canopy delivery system were evaluated in a high-density apple orchard.A pair of hollow-cone nozzles installed in three tiers had optimum spray performance for studied crop growth stages.A shower-down arrangement of emitters was the simplest design but had lesser deposition on abaxial leaf surfaces.Abstract. Optimally configured solid set canopy delivery system (SSCDS) based spraying has potential to improve tree-fruit crop pest and disease management by reducing application time and eliminating dependence on ground conditions. In such an effort, this study attempted to optimize SSCDS variants. Four different emitter types (E1 to E4) installed in different mounting configurations (C1 to C4) were evaluated for spray deposition and coverage in a high-density apple orchard trained in tall spindle architecture. Emitters E1, E2, and E4 had full circle spray patterns, and E3 had a hollow-cone pattern. Configuration C1 had a pair of E1 emitters spraying in a vertical plane and installed between two trees at 1.5 m above ground level (AGL). Another E1 emitter spraying in a horizontal plane was mounted atop each tree at 3.3 m AGL. Configurations C2 and C4 had emitters (E2 and E4, respectively) mounted atop each tree at 3.3 m AGL, and C3 had a pair of E3 emitters installed in a three-tier arrangement between two trees in the crop row. During field trials, a tree canopy about 3.0 m tall was divided into three zones (0 to 1.4 m, >1.4 to 2.2 m, and >2.2 to 3.0 m AGL) as bottom, middle, and top canopy zones, respectively. Mylar cards were used to quantify spray deposition using fluorometry, and water-sensitive papers (WSPs) were used to quantify coverage using image processing. Configuration C3 with 80° hollow-cone nozzles in a twin-emitter, three-tier arrangement had the highest overall spray deposition (581.1 ±77.8 ng cm-2, mean ± standard error) and coverage (18.4% ±4.1%). Moreover, C3 also had a significantly higher coverage on the abaxial surfaces of leaves compared to the other configurations. Configurations C1 was non-optimal because it lacked abaxial surface coverage as the canopy grew in the middle and late growth stages. Moreover, significant spray runoff from leaf surfaces was observed visually in the middle zone for C1 during the middle and late stages. This may be attributed to canopy growth around the emitters. Configurations C2 and C4, with emitters in a shower-down arrangement, had the highest deposition and coverage in the top canopy zone compared to the middle and bottom zones. Configurations C2 and C4 also had significantly higher spray coverage on the adaxial surfaces of leaves compared to the abaxial surfaces. Overall, despite the complex design of configuration C3 with six emitters per tree, it may be the most ideal arrangement for agrochemical application in an apple orchard trained in tall spindle architecture. For commercial feasibility, we recommend exploring this three-tier SSCDS configuration with low-cost emitter alternatives. Pertinent continuing efforts have been published by our group in which we successfully modified low-cost irrigation emitters, and the resulting three-tier SSCDS configurations had improved spray performance over expensive hollow-cone nozzles. Keywords: Fixed spray system, High-density apple orchard, Solid set canopy delivery system, Spray coverage, Spray deposition, SSCDS.

scholarly journals Spatial Distribution of Spray from a Solid Set Canopy Delivery System in a High-Density Apple Orchard Retrofitted with Modified Emitters

2021 ◽  
Vol 11 (2) ◽  
pp. 709
Author(s):  
Rakesh Ranjan ◽  
Rajeev Sinha ◽  
Lav R. Khot ◽  
Gwen-Alyn Hoheisel ◽  
Matthew Grieshop ◽  
...  
Keyword(s):  
Spray Deposition ◽  
Delivery Systems ◽  
Apple Orchard ◽  
High Density ◽  
Superior Performance ◽  
Hollow Cone ◽  
Perennial Crop ◽  
Laboratory Assessment ◽  
Leaf Surfaces ◽  
Tracer Solution

Solid Set Canopy Delivery Systems (SSCDS) are fixed agrochemical delivery systems composed of a network of micro-sprayers/nozzles distributed in perennial crop canopies. A previous SSCDS design composed of a 3-tier configuration using hollow cone sprayer nozzles has been shown to provide excellent coverage and deposition in high-density apple orchards. However, the hollow cone nozzles substantially increases the initial system installation costs. This study evaluated the effect of irrigation micro-emitters replacement on spray deposition, coverage and off-target drift. A micro-emitter used in greenhouse irrigation systems was duly modified to enhance its applicability with SSCDS. After laboratory assessment and optimization of the micro-emitters, a replicated field study was conducted to compare 3-tier SSCDS configured with either of modified irrigation micro-emitters or traditional hollow cone nozzles. Canopy deposition and off target drift were evaluated using a 500 ppm fluorescent tracer solution sprayed by the field installed systems and captured on mylar collectors. Spray coverage was evaluated using water sensitive papers. The overall canopy deposition and coverage for treatment configured with modified irrigation micro-emitters (955.5 ± 153.9 [mean ± standard error of mean] ng cm−2 and 22.7 ± 2.6%, respectively) were numerically higher than the hollow cone nozzles (746.2 ± 104.7 ng cm−2 and 19.0 ± 2.8%, respectively). Moreover, modified irrigation micro-emitter SSCDS had improved spray uniformity in the canopy foliage and on either side of leaf surfaces compared to a hollow cone nozzle. Ground and aerial spray losses, quantified as deposition, were numerically lower for the modified irrigation micro-emitter (121.8 ± 43.4 ng cm−2 and 0.7 ± 0.1 ng cm−2, respectively) compared to the traditional hollow cone nozzle (447.4 ± 190.9 ng cm−2 and 3.2 ± 0.4 ng cm−2, respectively). Overall, the modified irrigation micro-emitter provided similar or superior performance to the traditional hollow cone nozzle with an estimated 12 times reduction in system installation cost.

Development and Performance Evaluation of a Pneumatic Solid Set Canopy Delivery System for High-Density Apple Orchards

2020 ◽  
Vol 63 (1) ◽  
pp. 37-48 ◽  
Author(s):  
Rajeev Sinha ◽  
Rakesh Ranjan ◽  
Haitham Y. Bahlol ◽  
Lav R. Khot ◽  
Gwen-Alyn Hoheisel ◽  
...  
Keyword(s):  
Delivery System ◽  
Large Scale ◽  
Spray Deposition ◽  
Apple Orchard ◽  
High Density ◽  
Growth Stages ◽  
Operating Pressure ◽  
Apple Orchards ◽  
Crop Growth Stages ◽  
And Performance

Abstract. Solid set canopy delivery systems (SSCDS) are fixed spray systems that consist of a network of permanently plumbed emitters in high-density tree-fruit orchard canopies. Most of the previously configured SSCDS worked on the principle of hydraulic spray delivery (HSD), which may not be suitable for large-scale installation due to the drop in operating pressure caused by frictional losses in the spray lines. Therefore, a pneumatic spray delivery (PSD) based SSCDS was developed in this study for potentially achieving uniform spray application at all locations along the spray lines. A reservoir subsystem was developed to contain a precisely metered amount of spray liquid. Once filled, compressed air pushed through the spray lines can pressurize the reservoir to help deliver uniform spray into the canopy through emitters. In this study, HSD and PSD systems of 91 m set length were installed in a high-density apple orchard. Both systems were evaluated for variations in operating pressure, spray output, and spray performance. Spray performance was quantified during the middle (BBCH 75) and late (BBCH 85) apple (cv. WA-38 on tall spindle architecture) crop growth stages. Deposition and coverage in three canopy zones and on both sides of leaves were evaluated using Mylar cards and water-sensitive papers (WSP) as samplers, respectively. The Mylar cards and WSP were respectively analyzed using fluorometry and image processing. Statistically similar operating pressure (p > 0.05) was observed for the HSD and PSD systems at 3 m (286.1 and 284.1 kPa, respectively), 33 m (268.4 and 270.5 kPa), 60 m (260.6 and 268.9 kPa), and 87 m (255.3 and 257.9 kPa) from the row inlet. Despite the operating pressure drop, the PSD system had uniform spray output along the 91 m spray line. Compared to the HSD system, about 4%, 3%, 5%, and 20% higher spray output was delivered with the PSD system at 3, 33, 60, and 87 m, respectively, along the spray line. Overall, the PSD system had significantly higher mean spray deposition (p < 0.01) compared to the HSD system during the middle (521 and 382 ng cm-2, respectively) and late (631 and 409 ng cm-2, respectively) growth stages. The PSD system also had numerically higher spray deposition compared to the HSD system for all the canopy zones and on either side of leaf surfaces. Spray coverage trends were similar to deposition; however, the differences were not significant. Overall, the PSD-based SSCDS shows potential for large-scale installation, with additional refinements, for uniform spray applications in high-density apple orchards. Keywords: Hydraulic spray delivery, Pneumatic spray delivery, Solid set canopy delivery system, Spray coverage, Spray deposition.

scholarly journals Effect of Emitter Modifications on Spray Performance of a Solid Set Canopy Delivery System in a High-Density Apple Orchard

2021 ◽  
Vol 13 (23) ◽  
pp. 13248
Author(s):  
Rakesh Ranjan ◽  
Rajeev Sinha ◽  
Lav R. Khot ◽  
Gwen-Alyn Hoheisel ◽  
Matthew J. Grieshop ◽  
...  
Keyword(s):  
Large Scale ◽  
Spray Deposition ◽  
Field Tests ◽  
Apple Orchard ◽  
High Density ◽  
Leaf Surfaces ◽  
Tracer Solution ◽  
Economical System ◽  
Pesticide Drift ◽  
The Impact

Optimally configured solid set canopy delivery systems (SSCDS) can provide adequate spray performance in high-density apple orchards with a minimized risk of off-target pesticide drift. SSCDS configured in a shower-down emitter arrangement have been reported to be the simplest and most economical system. However, existing off-the-shelf emitters used in shower-down configurations have resulted in minimal deposition in lower canopy zones. Therefore, this study was focused on the modifications of off-the-shelf emitters to obtain a desirable spray pattern for adequate spray deposition in all the canopy zones. The modifications include redesigning the impact plate of two existing micro-emitters. Field tests were conducted to evaluate the spray performance of SSCDS with the non-modified emitters (treatment: SD1 and SD3) and contrast the results with modified emitters (treatment: SD2 and SD4). While the treatments SD1 and SD3 had off-the-shelf emitters with swivel plate and static spreader, respectively, the treatment SD2 and SD4 had similar emitters with modified impactor plates. In each treatment block, the apple canopy was divided into six zones and sprayed with a 500 ppm fluorescent tracer solution. Mylar cards and water-sensitive paper samplers were placed on the adaxial and abaxial leaf surfaces in each canopy zone to quantify spray deposition and coverage, respectively. The SSCDS treatments retrofitted with modified emitters, i.e., SD2 and SD4, were observed to have uniform and numerically higher deposition and coverage compared to SD1 and SD3. The SSCDS treatment with modified static spreader (i.e., SD4) resulted in the highest overall spray deposition (1405.7 ± 156.4 ng cm−2 [mean ± standard error]) with improved mid (1121.6 ± 186.9 ng cm−2) and bottom (895.6 ± 149.3 ng cm−2) canopy deposition. Overall, the proposed emitter modification assisted in improved SSCDS spray performances and may be a way forward toward large-scale emplacements of such systems.

Downwind Spray Drift Assessment for Airblast Sprayer Applications in a Modern Apple Orchard System

2021 ◽  
Vol 64 (2) ◽  
pp. 601-613
Author(s):  
Anura P. Rathnayake ◽  
Lav R. Khot ◽  
Gwen A. Hoheisel ◽  
Harold W. Thistle ◽  
Milt E. Teske ◽  
...  
Keyword(s):  
Spray Deposition ◽  
Mechanistic Model ◽  
Apple Orchard ◽  
Growth Stages ◽  
List Type ◽  
Spray Drift ◽  
Worst Case ◽  
Dormant Stage ◽  
Drift Potential ◽  
Spray Applications

HighlightsAirblast sprayer drift potential was evaluated up to 183 m (600 ft) downwind from an orchard edge.A central leader apple orchard was sprayed at dormant and full canopy stage.Higher drift at full canopy stage was likely due to higher wind speeds and lower humidity.String and artificial foliage samplers had higher collection efficiencies than Mylar cards.Abstract. Risk assessment of orchard pesticide spraying is currently based on spray drift estimation using a worst-case scenario (dormant stage). However, most spray applications are conducted during non-dormant canopy growth stages. Such overestimation leads to restrictive operational regulations in pest management activities. Therefore, field data were generated and studied for a mechanistic model that will predict spray drift from airblast spray applications in tree fruit orchards. Spray trials were conducted at dormant and full canopy growth stages in a central leader trained apple orchard. An axial-fan airblast sprayer sprayed fluorescent tracer in the third row from the orchard’s downwind edge, with four passes being one run. A total of 20 runs, i.e., 17 spray runs and three blanks, were performed during each of the two crop growth stages. Mylar cards, artificial foliage (AF), and horizontal strings (HS) were used to quantify drifting spray deposition up to 183 m (600 ft) downwind. Within the orchard, the deposition on card samplers 3 m upwind of the sprayed row was 21.94% ±4.63% (mean ± standard deviation) of applied dose (AD) at dormant stage and 16.02% ±2.86% AD at full canopy stage. Deposition downwind and adjacent (-3 m) to the sprayed row was 17.92% ±2.70% AD and 7.15% ±1.78% AD at dormant and full canopy stages, respectively. Spray drift decreased substantially at the orchard edge to 3.18% ±1.30% AD at dormant stage and 2.30% ±1.16% AD at full canopy stage. Spray drift was very low at 183 m (600 ft) downwind of the orchard, with deposition of 0.002% ±0.003% AD at dormant stage and 0.003% ±0.004% AD at full canopy stage. Deposition data collected at common sampler locations showed that HS and AF samplers collected significantly (p < 0.05) more drifting spray than card samplers. Downwind speeds had a strong linear relationship with spray drift at both growth stages (dormant: R2= 0.80, full canopy: R2= 0.86), while the influence of temperature and humidity could not be directly observed from the collected data. Keywords: Airblast spraying, Deposit samplers, Dormant and full canopy, Drift, Modern orchard systems.

scholarly journals Influence of canopy development in the vineyard on spray deposition from a tunnel sprayer

2018 ◽  
Vol 49 (3) ◽  
pp. 164-173 ◽  
Author(s):  
Gianfranco Pergher ◽  
Nicola Zucchiatti
Keyword(s):  
Spray Deposition ◽  
Field Tests ◽  
Air Injection ◽  
Growth Stages ◽  
Hollow Cone ◽  
Height Range ◽  
Area Index ◽  
Canopy Development ◽  
Wall Area ◽  
Rate Adjustment

Spray deposition from a tunnel, air-assisted sprayer was analysed during the whole season, following canopy development in a vertical-shoot-positioned vineyard. Four field tests were performed using hollow-cone, turbulence nozzles between the BBCH 15 (5 leaves unfolded) and BBCH 77 (berries beginning to touch) growth stages, plus an additional test with flat-fan, air-injection nozzles at BBCH 77. The main canopy parameters were assessed, including the canopy height range (0.6 m to 1.4 m), the leaf area index (LAI; 0.15 to 1.60) and the leaf layer index (LLI; 0.69 to 2.74). Total deposition on target (leaves and bunches) increased from 14.8% to 53.9% of volume applied, and was significantly related to the LLI (R² = 0.943); the relevance of such relationship in connection with the leaf wall area model for volume rate adjustment is discussed in the paper. Losses to the ground (1.9% to 8.1% of volume applied), spray recovery rate (31.0% to 67.2%) and losses owing to evaporation of the recycled liquid (0.1% to 3.5%) were also analysed. At BBCH 77, air-injection nozzles did not improve overall deposition in comparison to hollow-cone nozzles, but increased spray recovery (from 31.0% to 36.1%) and reduced (to 0.1%) evaporation of the recycled liquid, so that they may represent an option to avoid an excessive concentration in the tank towards the end of application.

scholarly journals Effect of Spray Application Technique on Spray Deposition and Losses in a Greenhouse Vegetable Nursery

2020 ◽  
Vol 12 (17) ◽  
pp. 7052
Author(s):  
Sabina Failla ◽  
Elio Romano
Keyword(s):  
Plant Protection ◽  
Spray Deposition ◽  
Irrigation System ◽  
Low Cost ◽  
Climatic Conditions ◽  
Seeding Density ◽  
Growth Stages ◽  
Tomato Seedlings ◽  
Greenhouse Vegetable ◽  
Spray Gun

The cultivation of vegetables in greenhouses requires seedlings produced in nurseries with high levels of practice specialisation. The nurseries are dedicated to the early stages of growth, from sowing to the first leaves. There, the seeding density and the hydro-climatic conditions favour diseases. Plant protection treatments are carried out with the use of low-cost machines, whose efficiencies and safety conditions depend on the workers’ ability. The irrigation system with a mechanised horizontal spray boom could be an alternative solution to the hand-held spray gun. This research aimed to investigate the use of a horizontal boom sprayer for the distribution of pesticides in different pressure conditions and forward speeds compared with a spray gun, in relation to tomato growth stages. The tests were carried out on tomato seedlings grown in polystyrene seeding boxes and arranged on hanging benches. Deposits on the seedlings (µL cm−2) and losses in the soil (µL cm−2) were assessed by means of standard colorimetric analysis. In order to reduce the environmental pollution and increase the sustainability of the treatments, the pressure at the horizontal spray boom should be reduced and the arrangement of the outermost nozzles may also be better set on the boom.

Assessment of Spray Deposition and Losses in an Apple Orchard with an Unmanned Agricultural Aircraft System in China

2020 ◽  
Vol 63 (3) ◽  
pp. 619-627
Author(s):  
Yang Liu ◽  
Longlong Li ◽  
Yajia Liu ◽  
Xiongkui He ◽  
Jianli Song ◽  
...  
Keyword(s):  
Pest Control ◽  
Plant Protection ◽  
Spray Deposition ◽  
Apple Orchard ◽  
Tree Canopy ◽  
List Type ◽  
Spray Drift ◽  
Reduced Pressure ◽  
External Contamination ◽  
Aircraft System

Highlights Field tests were performed in an orchard to evaluate spray performance of an unmanned agricultural aircraft system. A conventional air-assisted orchard sprayer was applied as a reference for comparing the feasibility of UAAS. The canopy deposition, airborne drift, loss to ground, and sprayer external contamination were tested. Field test results can provide a reference for the application of UAAS for pest control in orchards. Abstract. Unmanned agricultural aircraft system (UAAS) technology has developed rapidly in China in recent years. Due to their high application efficiency, all-terrain operation, and low-volume spraying, UAASs have been widely used for pest management in field crops, achieving good pest control and reduced pressure on farmers. In this study, the applicability of UAAS for orchard protection was tested in an apple orchard by spraying with a four-rotor UAAS and a conventional air-assisted orchard sprayer. The spray characteristics of both sprayers, including canopy deposition, drift in the air, loss to the ground, and external contamination on the sprayer, were measured and compared. The field results showed that the effective spray swath width of the UAAS was 2.23 m, and the maximum droplet density was 132 droplets cm -2 in the center of the flight line. The actual deposition in the tree canopy was lower with the UAAS than with the air-assisted sprayer, but the normalized deposition of the UAAS was equivalent to that of the air-assisted sprayer, and the coefficient of variation for deposition in all parts of the canopy was obviously higher for the UAAS than for the air-assisted sprayer. Due to the airflow produced by the high-speed rotors, the spray drift in the air was much higher with the UAAS than with the air-assisted sprayer, whereas the ground loss of the UAAS was 1/5 that of the air-assisted sprayer. Moreover, the rotor airflow of the UAAS caused a large amount of droplets to attach to the sprayer fuselage, causing the external contamination on the UAAS to be five times that of the air-assisted sprayer. Results showed that the use of a multirotor UAAS for plant protection in an orchard had considerable influence on the spray drift and external contamination of the spray equipment. Based on the results, the following recommendations can be made: (1) plant protection with a UAAS should be attained by spraying at a reasonable height to reduce the drift in the air, and (2) UAAS manufacturers should develop adequate spraying systems as well as appropriate UAAS designs for plant protection. Keywords: Air-assisted orchard sprayer, Apple orchard, Spray deposition, Spray loss, UAAS.

scholarly journals UAV-Based Heating Requirement Determination for Frost Management in Apple Orchard

2021 ◽  
Vol 13 (2) ◽  
pp. 273
Author(s):  
Wenan Yuan ◽  
Daeun Choi
Keyword(s):  
Apple Orchard ◽  
Growth Stages ◽  
Flower Bud ◽  
Critical Temperatures ◽  
Mapping Algorithm ◽  
Aerial Vehicle ◽  
Bud Growth ◽  
Frost Protection ◽  
Map Resolution ◽  
Temperature Maps

Frost is a natural disaster that can cause catastrophic damages in agriculture, while traditional temperature monitoring in orchards has disadvantages such as being imprecise and laborious, which can lead to inadequate or wasteful frost protection treatments. In this article, we presented a heating requirement assessment methodology for frost protection in an apple orchard utilizing unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV)-based thermal and RGB cameras. A thermal image stitching algorithm using the BRISK feature was developed for creating georeferenced orchard temperature maps, which attained a sub-centimeter map resolution and a stitching speed of 100 thermal images within 30 s. YOLOv4 classifiers for six apple flower bud growth stages in various network sizes were trained based on 5040 RGB images, and the best model achieved a 71.57% mAP for a test dataset consisted of 360 images. A flower bud mapping algorithm was developed to map classifier detection results into dense growth stage maps utilizing RGB image geoinformation. Heating requirement maps were created using artificial flower bud critical temperatures to simulate orchard heating demands during frost events. The results demonstrated the feasibility of the proposed orchard heating requirement determination methodology, which has the potential to be a critical component of an autonomous, precise frost management system in future studies.

scholarly journals The Effect of Weed Competition on Apple Fruit Quality

2017 ◽  
Vol 45 (1) ◽  
pp. 120-125 ◽  
Author(s):  
Ersin ATAY ◽  
Seckin GARGIN ◽  
Ahmet ESITKEN ◽  
N. Pinar GUZEL ◽  
A. Nilgun ATAY ◽  
...  
Keyword(s):  
Fruit Quality ◽  
Fruit Weight ◽  
Apple Orchard ◽  
High Density ◽  
Soluble Solids ◽  
Limiting Factor ◽  
Weed Competition ◽  
Soluble Solids Content ◽  
Solids Content ◽  
Potassium Magnesium

Orchard performance is influenced by weed competition. In this study, the effects of weed competition on nutrient contents, chemical and physical fruit quality properties were sought. The study was carried out in a high-density apple orchard (‘Golden Delicious’/M.9) over two consecutive growing seasons. The effect of weed competition was studied at three different levels: weak, moderate and strong. Fruit firmness, soluble solids content, macronutrients (such as nitrogen, potassium and calcium) and potassium+magnesium/calcium ratio in fruit were significantly affected by weed competition. Strong weed competition negatively affected soluble solids content and potassium+magnesium/calcium ratio. In both trial years, soluble solids content was significantly higher in weak weed competition. In the first year of the study, soluble solids content ranged between 13.77±0.06% (strong weed competition) and 15.20±0.10% (weak weed competition). In the following year, soluble solids content values were determined as 13.13±0.23% in strong weed competition and 13.83±0.21% in weak weed competition. Weak weed competition showed superiority for fruit weight and potassium+magnesium/calcium ratio. As a whole, this study indicates that insufficient weed control in tree rows might be a limiting factor for fruit quality in high-density apple orchards.

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