Asymmetry costs: effects of wing damage on hovering flight performance in the hawkmothManduca sexta

María José Fernández; Marion E. Driver; Tyson L. Hedrick

doi:10.1242/jeb.153494

Wing damage affects flight kinematics but not flower tracking performance in hummingbird hawkmoths

10.1101/2020.08.16.252759 ◽

2020 ◽

Author(s):

Klara Kihlström ◽

Brett Aiello ◽

Eric J. Warrant ◽

Simon Sponberg ◽

Anna Stöckl

Keyword(s):

Lift Force ◽

Beat Frequency ◽

Force Production ◽

Insect Species ◽

Flight Performance ◽

Wing Beat ◽

Wing Beat Frequency ◽

High Acceleration ◽

Wing Damage ◽

The Many

The integrity of their wings is crucial to the many insect species that spend distinct portions of their life in flight. How insects cope with the consequences of wing damage is therefore a central question when studying how robust flight performance is possible with such fragile chitinous wings. It has been shown in a variety of insect species that the loss in lift-force production resulting from wing damage is generally compensated by an increase in wing beat frequency rather than amplitude. The consequences of wing damage for flight performance, however, are less well understood, and vary considerably between species and behavioural tasks. One hypothesis reconciling the varying results is that wing damage might affect fast flight manoeuvres with high acceleration, but not slower ones. To test this hypothesis, we investigated the effect of wing damage on the manoeuvrability of hummingbird hawkmoths (Macroglossum stellatarum) tracking a motorised flower. This assay allowed us to sample a range of movements at different temporal frequencies, and thus assess whether wing damage affected faster or slower flight manoeuvres. We show that hummingbird hawkmoths compensate for the loss in lift force mainly by increasing wing beat amplitude, yet with a significant contribution of wing beat frequency. We did not observe any effects of wing damage on flight manoeuvrability at either high or low temporal frequencies.

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Wing damage affects flight kinematics but not flower tracking performance in hummingbird hawkmoths

Journal of Experimental Biology ◽

10.1242/jeb.236240 ◽

2021 ◽

Vol 224 (4) ◽

pp. jeb236240

Author(s):

Klara Kihlström ◽

Brett Aiello ◽

Eric Warrant ◽

Simon Sponberg ◽

Anna Stöckl

Keyword(s):

Lift Force ◽

Beat Frequency ◽

Force Production ◽

Insect Species ◽

Flight Performance ◽

Wing Beat ◽

Wing Beat Frequency ◽

High Acceleration ◽

Wing Damage ◽

The Many

ABSTRACTWing integrity is crucial to the many insect species that spend distinct portions of their life in flight. How insects cope with the consequences of wing damage is therefore a central question when studying how robust flight performance is possible with such fragile chitinous wings. It has been shown in a variety of insect species that the loss in lift-force production resulting from wing damage is generally compensated by an increase in wing beat frequency rather than amplitude. The consequences of wing damage for flight performance, however, are less well understood, and vary considerably between species and behavioural tasks. One hypothesis reconciling the varying results is that wing damage might affect fast flight manoeuvres with high acceleration, but not slower ones. To test this hypothesis, we investigated the effect of wing damage on the manoeuvrability of hummingbird hawkmoths (Macroglossum stellatarum) tracking a motorised flower. This assay allowed us to sample a range of movements at different temporal frequencies, and thus assess whether wing damage affected faster or slower flight manoeuvres. We show that hummingbird hawkmoths compensate for the loss in lift force mainly by increasing wing beat amplitude, yet with a significant contribution of wing beat frequency. We did not observe any effects of wing damage on flight manoeuvrability at either high or low temporal frequencies.

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A Review of Research on the Mechanical Design of Hoverable Flapping Wing Micro-Air Vehicles

Journal of Bionic Engineering ◽

10.1007/s42235-021-00118-4 ◽

2021 ◽

Author(s):

Shengjie Xiao ◽

Kai Hu ◽

Binxiao Huang ◽

Huichao Deng ◽

Xilun Ding

Keyword(s):

Mechanical Design ◽

Micro Air Vehicles ◽

Flapping Wing ◽

Development Prospect ◽

Flight Performance ◽

Research Groups ◽

Hovering Flight ◽

Driving Mechanisms ◽

Passive Deformation ◽

Air Vehicles

AbstractMost insects and hummingbirds can generate lift during both upstroke and downstroke with a nearly horizontal flapping stroke plane, and perform precise hovering flight. Further, most birds can utilize tails and muscles in wings to actively control the flight performance, while insects control their flight with muscles based on wing root along with wing’s passive deformation. Based on the above flight principles of birds and insects, Flapping Wing Micro Air Vehicles (FWMAVs) are classified as either bird-inspired or insect-inspired FWMAVs. In this review, the research achievements on mechanisms of insect-inspired, hoverable FWMAVs over the last ten years (2011–2020) are provided. We also provide the definition, function, research status and development prospect of hoverable FWMAVs. Then discuss it from three aspects: bio-inspiration, motor-driving mechanisms and intelligent actuator-driving mechanisms. Following this, research groups involved in insect-inspired, hoverable FWMAV research and their major achievements are summarized and classified in tables. Problems, trends and challenges about the mechanism are compiled and presented. Finally, this paper presents conclusions about research on mechanical structure, and the future is discussed to enable further research interests.

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Effects of natural wing damage on flight performance in Morpho butterflies: what can it tell us about wing shape evolution?

Journal of Experimental Biology ◽

10.1242/jeb.204057 ◽

2019 ◽

Vol 222 (16) ◽

pp. jeb204057 ◽

Cited By ~ 2

Author(s):

Camille Le Roy ◽

Raphaël Cornette ◽

Violaine Llaurens ◽

Vincent Debat

Keyword(s):

Wing Shape ◽

Shape Evolution ◽

Flight Performance ◽

Wing Damage

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Surpassing Mt. Everest: extreme flight performance of alpine bumble-bees

Biology Letters ◽

10.1098/rsbl.2013.0922 ◽

2014 ◽

Vol 10 (2) ◽

pp. 20130922 ◽

Cited By ~ 30

Author(s):

Michael E. Dillon ◽

Robert Dudley

Keyword(s):

Bumble Bees ◽

Bumble Bee ◽

Flight Performance ◽

Excess Capacity ◽

Wingbeat Frequency ◽

Hovering Flight ◽

Primary Means ◽

Animal Flight ◽

High Elevations ◽

Stroke Amplitude

Animal flight at altitude involves substantial aerodynamic and physiological challenges. Hovering at high elevations is particularly demanding from the dual perspectives of lift and power output; nevertheless, some volant insects reside and fly at elevations in excess of 4000 m. Here, we demonstrate that alpine bumble-bees possess substantial aerodynamic reserves, and can sustain hovering flight under hypobaria at effective elevations in excess of 9000 m, i.e. higher than Mt. Everest. Modulation of stroke amplitude and not wingbeat frequency is the primary means of compensation for overcoming the aerodynamic challenge. The presence of such excess capacity in a high-altitude bumble-bee is surprising and suggests intermittent behavioural demands for extreme flight performance supplemental to routine foraging.

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Limits to flight energetics of hummingbirds hovering in hypodense and hypoxic gas mixtures.

Journal of Experimental Biology ◽

10.1242/jeb.199.10.2285 ◽

1996 ◽

Vol 199 (10) ◽

pp. 2285-2295 ◽

Cited By ~ 17

Author(s):

P Chai ◽

R Dudley

Keyword(s):

Sea Level ◽

Gas Mixtures ◽

Oxygen Availability ◽

Flight Mechanics ◽

Oxygen Storage ◽

Flight Performance ◽

Hovering Flight ◽

Helium Mixtures ◽

Hypoxic Tolerance ◽

Mechanical Power Output

Hovering hummingbirds offer a model locomotor system for which analyses of both metabolism and flight mechanics are experimentally tractable. Because hummingbirds exhibit the highest mass-specific metabolic rates among vertebrates, maximum performance of hovering flight represents the upper limit of aerobic locomotion in vertebrates. This study evaluates the potential constraints of flight mechanics and oxygen availability on maximum flight performance. Hummingbird flight performance was manipulated non-invasively using air and gas mixtures which influenced metabolism via variable oxygen partial pressure and/or altered flight mechanics via variable air densities. Limits to the locomotor capacity of hovering ruby-throated hummingbirds (Archilochus colubris) were unequivocally indicated by aerodynamic failure in either air/helium or air/heliox mixtures. Air/helium mixtures are hypodense and hypoxic; failure to sustain hovering flight occurred at 63% of the density of sea-level air and at an oxygen concentration of 12%. Air/heliox mixtures are hypodense but normoxic; failure in hovering occurred at 47% of sea-level air density. Thus, hummingbirds demonstrated considerable power reserves in hovering flight as well as hypoxic tolerance. In air/helium mixtures, hovering was limited by oxygen supply and not by flight mechanics. Birds hovering in air/helium mixtures increased their mechanical power output but not their rate of oxygen consumption. By contrast, birds hovering in air/heliox mixtures increased both mechanical performance and metabolic expenditure. Under hypoxia, hovering hummingbirds demonstrated non-negligible, but still limited, capacities for anaerobic metabolism and/or oxygen storage. Depending on the physical context, hummingbird flight performance can therefore be limited by oxygen availability or by flight aerodynamics.

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Dynamics of animal movement in an ecological context: dragonfly wing damage reduces flight performance and predation success

Biology Letters ◽

10.1098/rsbl.2009.0915 ◽

2010 ◽

Vol 6 (3) ◽

pp. 426-429 ◽

Cited By ~ 44

Author(s):

S. A. Combes ◽

J. D. Crall ◽

S. Mukherjee

Keyword(s):

Laboratory Experiments ◽

Animal Movement ◽

Vertical Acceleration ◽

Flight Performance ◽

Ecological Context ◽

Complete Understanding ◽

Animal Locomotion ◽

Natural Context ◽

Wing Damage ◽

Natural Settings

Much of our understanding of the control and dynamics of animal movement derives from controlled laboratory experiments. While many aspects of animal movement can be probed only in these settings, a more complete understanding of animal locomotion may be gained by linking experiments on relatively simple motions in the laboratory to studies of more complex behaviours in natural settings. To demonstrate the utility of this approach, we examined the effects of wing damage on dragonfly flight performance in both a laboratory drop–escape response and the more natural context of aerial predation. The laboratory experiment shows that hindwing area loss reduces vertical acceleration and average flight velocity, and the predation experiment demonstrates that this type of wing damage results in a significant decline in capture success. Taken together, these results suggest that wing damage may take a serious toll on wild dragonflies, potentially reducing both reproductive success and survival.

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