AbstractTransmission electron microscopy (TEM) is an important imaging technique in bacterial research and requires ultrathin sectioning of resin embedding of cell pellets. This method consumes milli- to deciliters of culture and results in sections of randomly orientated cells. For rod-shaped bacteria, this makes it exceedingly difficult to find longitudinally cut cells, which precludes large-scale quantification of morphological phenotypes. Here, we describe a new fixation method using either thin agarose layers or carbon-coated glass surfaces that enables flat embedding of bacteria. This technique allows for the observation of thousands of longitudinally cut rod-shaped cells per single section and requires only microliter culture volumes. We successfully applied this technique to Gram-positive Bacillus subtilis, Gram-negative Escherichia coli, the tuberculosis vaccine strain Mycobacterium bovis BCG, and the cell wall-lacking mycoplasma Acholeplasma laidlawii. To assess the potential of the technique to quantify morphological phenotypes, we examined cellular changes induced by a panel of different antibiotics. Surprisingly, we found that the ribosome inhibitor tetracycline causes significant deformations of the cell membrane. Further investigations showed that the presence of tetracycline in the cell membrane changes membrane organization and affects the peripheral membrane proteins MinD, MinC, and MreB, which are important for regulation of cell division and elongation. Importantly, we could show that this effect is not the result of ribosome inhibition but is a secondary antibacterial activity of tetracycline that has defied discovery for more than 50 years.SignificanceBacterial antibiotic resistance is a serious public health problem and novel antibiotics are urgently needed. Before a new antibiotic can be brought to the clinic, its antibacterial mechanism needs to be elucidated. Transmission electron microscopy is an important tool to investigate these mechanisms. We developed a flat embedding method that enables examination of many more bacterial cells than classical protocols, enabling large-scale quantification of phenotypic changes. Flat embedding can be adapted to most growth conditions and microbial species and can be employed in a wide variety of microbiological research fields. Using this technique, we show that even well-established antibiotics like tetracycline can have unknown additional antibacterial activities, demonstrating how flat embedding can contribute to finding new antibiotic mechanisms.
EARLY CHANGES OF SUGAR CHAINS IN BLADDER LUMINAL CELL MEMBRANE OF RAT TREATED WITH N-BUTYL-N-(4-HYDROXYBUTIL) NITROSAMINE DETECTED BY IMMUNOHISTOCHEMICAL TRANSMISSION ELECTRON MICROSCOPY