Reply by the author to the Discussion by J. M. Mendel

Geophysics ◽  
1993 ◽  
Vol 58 (3) ◽  
pp. 443-445
Author(s):  
Anton Ziolkowski
Keyword(s):  
Stochastic Processes ◽  
Seismic Data ◽  
Random Variables ◽  
The Earth ◽  
Definition Of

I thank Professor Mendel for his comments on my paper. I first examine his model of the seismogram and show that losses in the earth cannot be convolutional. I then examine the structure of his “reflectivity sequence” and show that this cannot be random. I suggest that the theory of probability, random variables and stochastic processes is not applicable to our non‐random seismic data. I suggest that we need, and use, a definition of whiteness in geophysics which comes from optics. Finally I show that none of the methods I am proposing for the determination of the source signature relies on the earth being loss‐free.

What is Psychology?

1859 ◽  
Vol 6 (31) ◽  
pp. 39-49
Author(s):  
J. Stevenson Bushnan
Keyword(s):  
Point Of View ◽  
General Character ◽  
Wide Field ◽  
Human Knowledge ◽  
The Earth ◽  
The Senses ◽  
Moral Certainty ◽  
Definition Of ◽  
Made In

Physiology is co-extensive with organic nature. Organic nature is wholly composed of individuals, comprising the two great kingdoms of plants and animals. A unity of structure pervades the whole of this wide field of nature; and this unity is a great principle, applicable to the determination of truth in the investigation of this part of knowledge. Every individual in organic nature is a system made up of reciprocally dependent and connected parts. The objects of investigation in physiology are phenomena, organs, and principles. The study of phenomena stands first in order; but while it must essentially be first cultivated and advanced, in the ulterior stages of its progress it gains continually fresh additions from the progress made in the knowledge of organs and principles. That phenomena attract attention before organs, is manifest on the slightest consideration. Thus the phenomena of locomotion were familiar to mankind long before the part taken by the muscular flesh in locomotion was discovered. To this moment it is far more certain that absorption takes place throughout the animal body, than what the organs are by which that office is performed. And it would be easy to multiply examples of the same kind, not-withstanding that there are some phenomena of the human body—such as those connected with the sense of sight, the sense of hearing, and other senses—the organs concerned in which must have been known, in a general manner, almost as soon as the earliest phenomena in which they are concerned. Principles, in their larger sense, take their place subsequently to the study of organs; yet, as referring to the more common genera of phenomena, these must also have had their rise almost coeval with the observation of phenomena. Thus the grouping of colours, sounds, smells, and tastes together, under the name of qualities derived from sense, must have been a very early and universal generalization. Nevertheless, it will, I think, be conceded, after these examples, that the study of phenomena is of a more elementary character in physiology, than the study of organs and principles; and, therefore, in the difficult parts of any physiological subject, that more progress is likely to be made by the study of phenomena, than by the study of organs and principles. But before proceeding further, it may be desirable to give some examples of physiological phenomena:—the alternation of sleep and waking; of hunger and satiety; thirst; the effect of drink; breathing; the exercise of the senses, and trains of thought; the various kinds of locomotion, walking, running, leaping, dancing. Here a question naturally arises—if trains of thought be physiological phenomena, does not all human knowledge fall within the definition of physiological phenomena? If the human race were not yet called into being, neither would human knowledge, it is true, have any existence in the world. And, it is doubtless true, under one point of view, that all that man has discovered; all that he has recorded; all the changes which he has made upon the earth since his first creation—are the effects of his physiological nature. But to place all knowledge under the head of physiology would be to defeat the very end of methodical arrangement, to which the progress of knowledge is so largely indebted. Nor is it difficult to mark out at least the general character of the boundaries within which physiology, in the largest sense in which it is convenient to accept it, should be circumscribed. Let us take as an example man's susceptibility of locomotion. It is a sufficient illustration of the physiology of locomotion to point out, that every man without any extraordinary effort learns to walk, run, hop, leap, climb; but there is at least a manifest convenience in separating such more difficult acquisitions as dancing, skating, writing, from the order of physiological phenomena, and placing each in a department by itself, as subject to its own rules. So also it is at least a convenience to consider painting and music as separate departments of study, and not merely as physiological phenomena, falling under the senses of sight and of hearing. It may be supposed to be a matter of the like convenience, to separate from physiology all the phenomena which enter into what are commonly called trains of thought; that is nearly all that comes under the head of psychology, in its most appropriate extent of signification. But several objections will readily occur to such a mutilation of physiology. In particular, it is objectionable, because, as was already hinted, the phenomenal departments of physiology, though the first to take a start, are often much augmented by the subsequent study of the organs concerned; and, more so that, since psychology, disjoined from physiology, and limited to one mode of culture, namely, by reflexion on the subjects of consciousness, were psychology thrown out from physiology, the probable advantages from the study of the organs concerned in the mental processes, and the other modes of culture, admissible in physiological enquiry, would be lost. If it be said that psychology proper rejects all evidence, except the evidence of consciousness, on no other ground, but because of the uncertainty of every other source of evidence—the answer is, that in those sciences which have made most progress, possibility, probability, and moral certainty have always been admitted as sufficient interim grounds for the prosecution of such inquiries as have finally, though at first leading to inexact conclusions, opened the way to the attainment of the most important truths; and that psychology, by the over-rigidness of its rules of investigation, has plainly fallen behind sciences, in advance of which it at one time stood in its progress.

Determination of the signature of a dynamite source using source scaling, Part 1: Theory

Geophysics ◽  
1993 ◽  
Vol 58 (8) ◽  
pp. 1174-1182 ◽  
Author(s):  
Anton Ziolkowski
Keyword(s):  
Impulse Response ◽  
Seismic Data ◽  
Scaling Law ◽  
Cube Root ◽  
The Earth ◽  
Shot Point ◽  
Source Scaling ◽  
Seismic Data Acquisition ◽  
Injection Function

It is normally impossible to measure the source signature in land seismic data acquisition with a dynamite source, because it is normally impossible to separate the incident field from the scattered field. Nevertheless, in any serious attempt to invert the seismic data, it is essential to know the source signature; for the dynamite source this is the volume injection function. The problem can be solved by using two different shots at each shot point and relating the source signatures by the source scaling law, which follows from the invariance of the medium parameters with the size of the charge. The volume injection function of the larger shot is an amplified and stretched version of that of the smaller shot, the amplification factor being equal to the ratio of the charge masses and the time stretch factor being equal to the cube‐root of this ratio. At a given receiver, the response to one shot is a convolution of the source signature with the impulse response of the earth, plus noise. The two shots and the scaling law give three independent equations relating the three unknowns: the two source signatures and the impulse response of the earth (plus noise). This theory may be put at risk in a physical experiment which requires a third shot at the same shot point, using a known mass of dynamite, different from the first two. The resulting shot record should be different from the first two and, apart from the noise, should be predictable from them.

scholarly journals What is Psychology?

1859 ◽  
Vol 6 (31) ◽  
pp. 39-49
Author(s):  
J. Stevenson Bushnan
Keyword(s):  
Point Of View ◽  
General Character ◽  
Wide Field ◽  
Human Knowledge ◽  
The Earth ◽  
The Senses ◽  
Moral Certainty ◽  
Definition Of ◽  
Made In

Physiology is co-extensive with organic nature. Organic nature is wholly composed of individuals, comprising the two great kingdoms of plants and animals. A unity of structure pervades the whole of this wide field of nature; and this unity is a great principle, applicable to the determination of truth in the investigation of this part of knowledge. Every individual in organic nature is a system made up of reciprocally dependent and connected parts. The objects of investigation in physiology are phenomena, organs, and principles. The study of phenomena stands first in order; but while it must essentially be first cultivated and advanced, in the ulterior stages of its progress it gains continually fresh additions from the progress made in the knowledge of organs and principles. That phenomena attract attention before organs, is manifest on the slightest consideration. Thus the phenomena of locomotion were familiar to mankind long before the part taken by the muscular flesh in locomotion was discovered. To this moment it is far more certain that absorption takes place throughout the animal body, than what the organs are by which that office is performed. And it would be easy to multiply examples of the same kind, not-withstanding that there are some phenomena of the human body—such as those connected with the sense of sight, the sense of hearing, and other senses—the organs concerned in which must have been known, in a general manner, almost as soon as the earliest phenomena in which they are concerned. Principles, in their larger sense, take their place subsequently to the study of organs; yet, as referring to the more common genera of phenomena, these must also have had their rise almost coeval with the observation of phenomena. Thus the grouping of colours, sounds, smells, and tastes together, under the name of qualities derived from sense, must have been a very early and universal generalization. Nevertheless, it will, I think, be conceded, after these examples, that the study of phenomena is of a more elementary character in physiology, than the study of organs and principles; and, therefore, in the difficult parts of any physiological subject, that more progress is likely to be made by the study of phenomena, than by the study of organs and principles. But before proceeding further, it may be desirable to give some examples of physiological phenomena:—the alternation of sleep and waking; of hunger and satiety; thirst; the effect of drink; breathing; the exercise of the senses, and trains of thought; the various kinds of locomotion, walking, running, leaping, dancing. Here a question naturally arises—if trains of thought be physiological phenomena, does not all human knowledge fall within the definition of physiological phenomena? If the human race were not yet called into being, neither would human knowledge, it is true, have any existence in the world. And, it is doubtless true, under one point of view, that all that man has discovered; all that he has recorded; all the changes which he has made upon the earth since his first creation—are the effects of his physiological nature. But to place all knowledge under the head of physiology would be to defeat the very end of methodical arrangement, to which the progress of knowledge is so largely indebted. Nor is it difficult to mark out at least the general character of the boundaries within which physiology, in the largest sense in which it is convenient to accept it, should be circumscribed. Let us take as an example man's susceptibility of locomotion. It is a sufficient illustration of the physiology of locomotion to point out, that every man without any extraordinary effort learns to walk, run, hop, leap, climb; but there is at least a manifest convenience in separating such more difficult acquisitions as dancing, skating, writing, from the order of physiological phenomena, and placing each in a department by itself, as subject to its own rules. So also it is at least a convenience to consider painting and music as separate departments of study, and not merely as physiological phenomena, falling under the senses of sight and of hearing. It may be supposed to be a matter of the like convenience, to separate from physiology all the phenomena which enter into what are commonly called trains of thought; that is nearly all that comes under the head of psychology, in its most appropriate extent of signification. But several objections will readily occur to such a mutilation of physiology. In particular, it is objectionable, because, as was already hinted, the phenomenal departments of physiology, though the first to take a start, are often much augmented by the subsequent study of the organs concerned; and, more so that, since psychology, disjoined from physiology, and limited to one mode of culture, namely, by reflexion on the subjects of consciousness, were psychology thrown out from physiology, the probable advantages from the study of the organs concerned in the mental processes, and the other modes of culture, admissible in physiological enquiry, would be lost. If it be said that psychology proper rejects all evidence, except the evidence of consciousness, on no other ground, but because of the uncertainty of every other source of evidence—the answer is, that in those sciences which have made most progress, possibility, probability, and moral certainty have always been admitted as sufficient interim grounds for the prosecution of such inquiries as have finally, though at first leading to inexact conclusions, opened the way to the attainment of the most important truths; and that psychology, by the over-rigidness of its rules of investigation, has plainly fallen behind sciences, in advance of which it at one time stood in its progress.

Impact of Satellite Altimetry on Geodetic Datum Definition

1974 ◽  
Vol 28 (5) ◽  
pp. 539-548 ◽  
Author(s):  
D. M. J. Fubara ◽  
A. G. Mourad
Keyword(s):  
Satellite Altimetry ◽  
Altimeter Data ◽  
Geodetic Networks ◽  
Absolute Orientation ◽  
The Earth ◽  
Geopotential Coefficient ◽  
The World ◽  
Figure Of The Earth ◽  
Definition Of

Based on results of the geodetic calibration and analysis of Skylab altimeter data, the concept of determination of the geoid in the oceans — the marine geoid — from satellite altimetry has been demonstrated. In principle, the satellite altimetry geoid should combine and improve on all the strong features of the gravimetric, astrogeodetic and satellite-derived geopotential coefficient geoids in terms of scale, shape, and absolute orientation. The criteria for achieving these conditions have been discussed with supporting investigations in other publications by the authors. It is shown that the satellite-altimetry-derived marine geoid, which could cover about 70 per cent of the world, can be used for 1) modification of scale, shape, orientation, and centering of the various geoids in each continent to achieve uniformity and compatibility that currently do not exist, and 2) improved intercontinental ties between computed geoids and geodetic datums of the various continents. Achievement of these objectives will contribute to a better definition of the figure of the earth and geodetic datums required for adjustment of geodetic networks.

scholarly journals An Importance Sampling Framework for Time-Variant Reliability Analysis Involving Stochastic Processes

2021 ◽  
Vol 13 (14) ◽  
pp. 7776
Author(s):  
Jian Wang ◽  
Xiang Gao ◽  
Zhili Sun
Keyword(s):  
Stochastic Processes ◽  
Reliability Analysis ◽  
Importance Sampling ◽  
Random Variables ◽  
Probability Density Functions ◽  
Cumulative Probability ◽  
Performance Function ◽  
Definition Of ◽  
Time Invariant ◽  
Dimensional Integral

In recent years, methods were proposed so as to efficiently perform time-variant reliability analysis. However, importance sampling (IS) for time-variant reliability analysis is barely studied in the literature. In this paper, an IS framework is proposed. A multi-dimensional integral is first derived to define the time-variant cumulative probability of failure, which has the similar expression to the classical definition of time-invariant failure probability. An IS framework is then developed according to the fact that time-invariant random variables are commonly involved in time-variant reliability analysis. The basic idea of the proposed framework is to simultaneously apply time-invariant IS and crude Monte Carlo simulation on time-invariant random variables and stochastic processes, respectively. Thus, the probability of acquiring failure trajectories of time-variant performance function is increased. Two auxiliary probability density functions are proposed to implement the IS framework. However, auxiliary PDFs available for the framework are not limited to the proposed two. Three examples are studied in order to validate the effectiveness of the proposed IS framework.

scholarly journals Observations for Reanalyses

2018 ◽  
Vol 99 (9) ◽  
pp. 1851-1866 ◽  
Author(s):  
Stefan Brönnimann ◽  
Rob Allan ◽  
Christopher Atkinson ◽  
Roberto Buizza ◽  
Olga Bulygina ◽  
...  
Keyword(s):  
Earth System ◽  
Production Chain ◽  
Research Activities ◽  
The Earth ◽  
Generation Cycle ◽  
Definition Of ◽  
Data Collections ◽  
Evaluation Of Data

AbstractGlobal dynamical reanalyses of the atmosphere and ocean fundamentally rely on observations, not just for the assimilation (i.e., for the definition of the state of the Earth system components) but also in many other steps along the production chain. Observations are used to constrain the model boundary conditions, for the calibration or uncertainty determination of other observations, and for the evaluation of data products. This requires major efforts, including data rescue (for historical observations), data management (including metadatabases), compilation and quality control, and error estimation. The work on observations ideally occurs one cycle ahead of the generation cycle of reanalyses, allowing the reanalyses to make full use of it. In this paper we describe the activities within ERA-CLIM2, which range from surface, upper-air, and Southern Ocean data rescue to satellite data recalibration and from the generation of snow-cover products to the development of a global station data metadatabase. The project has not produced new data collections. Rather, the data generated has fed into global repositories and will serve future reanalysis projects. The continuation of this effort is first contingent upon the organization of data rescue and also upon a series of targeted research activities to address newly identified in situ and satellite records.

scholarly journals Construction of Relativistic Ephemerides and Applications

1997 ◽  
Vol 165 ◽  
pp. 233-238 ◽  
Author(s):  
X. Moisson
Keyword(s):  
Time Measurement ◽  
Relativity Theory ◽  
Reference Systems ◽  
General Relativity Theory ◽  
The Earth ◽  
Vlbi Observations ◽  
Analytical Integration ◽  
Definition Of ◽  
Near Future

AbstractThe present precision of VLBI observations for the Earth rotation, the accuracy of time measurement realised with modern atomic clocks, and the necessity to obtain precise definition of reference systems and links between them, imply that we compute in the near future more accurate ephemerides, based on general relativity theory (GRT), in accordance with the recent IAU resolutions (IAU, 1992). This paper is dedicated to the presentation of semi-analytical integration of the motion of bodies in the Solar system which completes the theories built at the Bureau des Longitudes by (Bretagnon and Francou, 1988), with some applications in the determination of coordinate time scales links.

State Failure and the Political Violence Phenomenon: A Comparative Analysis of Iraq and Syria Cases

2016 ◽  
Vol 4 (2) ◽  
pp. 170 ◽  
Author(s):  
K. Eylem Özkaya Lassalle
Keyword(s):  
Cold War ◽  
Political Violence ◽  
State Failure ◽  
The Political ◽  
Collective Violence ◽  
Short Run ◽  
Definition Of ◽  
The Cold War

The concept of failed state came to the fore with the end of the Cold War, the collapse of the USSR and the disintegration of Yugoslavia. Political violence is central in these discussions on the definition of the concept or the determination of its dimensions (indicators). Specifically, the level of political violence, the type of political violence and intensity of political violence has been broached in the literature. An effective classification of political violence can lead us to a better understanding of state failure phenomenon. By using Tilly’s classification of collective violence which is based on extent of coordination among violent actors and salience of short-run damage, the role played by political violence in state failure can be understood clearly. In order to do this, two recent cases, Iraq and Syria will be examined.

HADIS KURAIB DALAM KONSEP RUKYATUL HILAL

1970 ◽  
Vol 13 (2) ◽  
Author(s):  
Muslih Husein
Keyword(s):  
The West ◽  
The Earth ◽  
New Moon ◽  
The Republic

Hisab dan rukyat, hakikatnya, adalah cara untuk mengetahui pergantian bulan. Kajian ini memperlihatkan beberapa temuan. Pertama, korelasi antara hadis Kuraib dan terjadinya perbedaan penetapan awal Ramadan, Syawal, dan Dzul Hijjah di Indonesia. Kementerian Agama Republik Indonesia telah menetapkan bahwa Indonesia secara keseluruhan menjadi satu wilayah hukum (wilayatul hukmi). Kedua, tentang keberhasilan rukyat al-hilal di satu kawasan yang diberlakukan bagi kawasan lain di muka bumi. Perlu diketahui bersama bahwa visibilitas pertama hilal tidak meliputi seluruh muka bumi pada hari yang sama, melainkan membelahnya menjadi dua bagian: (1) bagian sebelah Barat yang dapat melihat hilal dan (2) bagian sebelah Timur yang tidak dapat melihat hilal.Hisab and rukyat is a way to know the turn of the month. This study shows several findings. First is the correlation between Kuraib traditions and differences in the determination of the beginning of Ramadan, Shawwal, and Dhul-Hijjah in Indonesia. Ministry of Religious Affairs of the Republic of Indonesia has stated that Indonesia as a whole into a single jurisdiction (wilayatul hukmi). Second, on the success rukyat alhilal in one area that applied to other regions of earth. Important to know that the first visibility of the new moon does not cover the entire face of the earth on the same day, but splitting it into two parts: (1) part of the West to see the new moon, and (2) part of the East were not able to see the new moon.

DEFINITION OF TIME SPENT ON REPAIR OF BUS TRANSMISSION UNITS TAKING INTO ACCOUNT TECHNOLOGICAL EQUIPMENT RELIABILITY

2020 ◽  
Vol 2020 (9) ◽  
pp. 29-33
Author(s):  
Sergey Bulatov
Keyword(s):  
Negative Impact ◽  
Probabilistic Method ◽  
Technological Equipment ◽  
Quality And Safety ◽  
Transmission Unit ◽  
Equipment Reliability ◽  
Hours Of Work ◽  
Definition Of ◽  
Time Decrease

The paper purpose is the effectiveness estimation in the technological equipment use, taking into account its reliability and productivity for defective transmission units of buses. The problem consists in the determination of time to be spent on repair of bus transmission units taking into account technological equipment reliability. In the paper there is used a probabilistic method for the prediction bus transmission units, and also a method of the dynamics of averages which allow ensuring minimum of costs for units downtime during repair and equipment cost. The need for repair of transmission units (gear box) arises on an average after 650 hours, the average productivity of the bench makes 4.2 bus / hour. The bench fails on the average after 4600 hours of work, the average time of the bench makes 2 hours. In such a way the solution of the problem specified allows analyzing the necessity of time decrease for transmission unit repair to avoid long downtimes of buses in repair areas without negative impact upon high repair quality and safety during the further operation.

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