Abstract
In situ observations of surface air and dewpoint temperatures and air pressure from over 15 000 weather stations and from ships are used to calculate surface specific (q) and relative (RH) humidity over the globe (60°S–75°N) from December 1975 to spring 2005. Seasonal and interannual variations and linear trends are analyzed in relation to observed surface temperature (T) changes and simulated changes by a coupled climate model [namely the Parallel Climate Model (PCM)] with realistic forcing. It is found that spatial patterns of long-term mean q are largely controlled by climatological surface temperature, with the largest q of 17–19 g kg−1 in the Tropics and large seasonal variations over northern mid- and high-latitude land. Surface RH has relatively small spatial and interannual variations, with a mean value of 75%–80% over most oceans in all seasons and 70%–80% over most land areas except for deserts and high terrain, where RH is 30%–60%. Nighttime mean RH is 2%–15% higher than daytime RH over most land areas because of large diurnal temperature variations. The leading EOFs in both q and RH depict long-term trends, while the second EOF of q is related to the El Niño–Southern Oscillation (ENSO). During 1976–2004, global changes in surface RH are small (within 0.6% for absolute values), although decreasing trends of −0.11% ∼ −0.22% decade−1 for global oceans are statistically significant. Large RH increases (0.5%–2.0% decade−1) occurred over the central and eastern United States, India, and western China, resulting from large q increases coupled with moderate warming and increases in low clouds over these regions during 1976–2004. Statistically very significant increasing trends are found in global and Northern Hemispheric q and T. From 1976 to 2004, annual q (T) increased by 0.06 g kg−1 (0.16°C) decade−1 globally and 0.08 g kg−1 (0.20°C) decade−1 in the Northern Hemisphere, while the Southern Hemispheric q trend is positive but statistically insignificant. Over land, the q and T trends are larger at night than during the day. The largest percentage increases in surface q (∼1.5% to 6.0% decade−1) occurred over Eurasia where large warming (∼0.2° to 0.7°C decade−1) was observed. The q and T trends are found in all seasons over much of Eurasia (largest in boreal winter) and the Atlantic Ocean. Significant correlation between annual q and T is found over most oceans (r = 0.6–0.9) and most of Eurasia (r = 0.4–0.8), whereas it is insignificant over subtropical land areas. RH–T correlation is weak over most of the globe but is negative over many arid areas. The q–T anomaly relationship is approximately linear so that surface q over the globe, global land, and ocean increases by ∼4.9%, 4.3%, and 5.7% per 1°C warming, respectively, values that are close to those suggested by the Clausius–Clapeyron equation with a constant RH. The recent q and T trends and the q–T relationship are broadly captured by the PCM; however, the model overestimates volcanic cooling and the trends in the Southern Hemisphere.
Interannual Variations of the Stratosphere and Troposphere during Northern Winter as Simulated by WACCM