scholarly journals Assessing IEEE 802.11 and IEEE 802.16 as Backhauling Technologies for 3G Small Cells in Rural Areas of Developing Countries

2019 ◽  
Vol 2019 ◽  
pp. 1-15 ◽  
Author(s):  
Javier Simó-Reigadas ◽  
Carlos Figuera ◽  
Eduardo Morgado ◽  
Esteban Municio ◽  
Andrés Martínez-Fernández
Keyword(s):  
Developing Countries ◽  
Mobile Networks ◽  
Rural Areas ◽  
Urban Areas ◽  
Field Experiments ◽  
Access Network ◽  
Ieee 802.16 ◽  
Analytical Models ◽  
Small Cells ◽  
Long Distance

Mobile networks are experiencing a great development in urban areas worldwide, and developing countries are not an exception. However, sparsely populated rural areas in developing regions usually do not have any access to terrestrial communications networks because operators cannot ensure enough revenues to justify the required investments. Therefore, alternative low-cost solutions are needed for both the access network and the backhaul network. In this sense, in order to provide rural 3G coverage in small villages, state-of-the-art approaches propose to use Small Cells in access networks and inexpensive multihop wireless networks based on WiFi for long distances (WiLD) or WiMAX for backhauling them. These technologies provide most of the required capabilities; however, there is no complete knowledge about the performance of WiFi and WiMAX in long-distance links under quality of service constraints. The aim of this work is to provide a detailed overview of the different alternatives for building rural wireless backhaul networks. We compare both IEEE 802.11n and IEEE 802.16 distance-aware analytical models and validate them by extensive simulations and field experiments. Also WiFi-based TDMA proprietary solutions are evaluated experimentally and compared. Finally, results are used to model a real study case in the Peruvian Amazon in order to illustrate that the performance provided by these technologies may be sufficient for the backhaul network of a rural 3G access network based on Small Cells.

Relating Household Consumption Expenditures to Road Traffic Fatalities: A Rural–Urban Study

2021 ◽  
pp. 036119812110332
Author(s):  
Ruchika Agarwala ◽  
Vinod Vasudevan
Keyword(s):  
Developing Countries ◽  
Traffic Safety ◽  
Rural Areas ◽  
Urban Areas ◽  
Household Consumption ◽  
Household Expenditure ◽  
Traffic Fatality ◽  
Rural And Urban Areas ◽  
Rural And Urban ◽  
The Relationship

Research shows that traffic fatality risk is generally higher in rural areas than in urban areas. In developing countries, vehicle ownership and investments in public transportation typically increase with economic growth. These two factors together increase the vehicle population, which in turn affects traffic safety. This paper presents a study focused on the relationship of various factors—including household consumption expenditure data—with traffic fatality in rural and urban areas and thereby aims to fill some of the gaps in the literature. One such gap is the impacts of personal and non-personal modes of travel on traffic safety in rural versus urban areas in developing countries which remains unexplored. An exhaustive panel data modeling approach is adopted. One important finding of this study is that evidence exists of a contrasting relationship between household expenditure and traffic fatality in rural and urban areas. The relationship between household expenditure and traffic fatality is observed to be positive in rural areas and a negative in urban areas. Increases in most expenditure variables, such as fuel, non-personal modes of travel, and two-wheeler expenditures, are found to be associated with an increase in traffic fatality in rural areas.

SKEWED PEDIATRIC PRIORITIES

PEDIATRICS ◽  
1979 ◽  
Vol 63 (3) ◽  
pp. 388-388
Author(s):  
D. Morley
Keyword(s):  
Developing Countries ◽  
Medical Care ◽  
Rural Areas ◽  
Urban Areas ◽  
Low Cost

Although three quarters of the population in most developing countries live in rural areas, three quarters of the spending on medical care is in urban areas, where three quarters of the doctors live. Three quarters of the deaths are caused by conditions that can be prevented at low cost, but three quarters of the medical budget is spent on curative services, many of them provided for the elite at high cost.

scholarly journals Nature-Related Experience during Childhood in Urban and Rural Areas: The Case of Peninsular Malaysians

2017 ◽  
Vol 2017 ◽  
pp. 1-9 ◽  
Author(s):  
Huda Farhana Mohamad Muslim ◽  
Tetsuro Hosaka ◽  
Shinya Numata ◽  
Noor Azlin Yahya
Keyword(s):  
Developing Countries ◽  
Rural Areas ◽  
Urban Areas ◽  
Public Spaces ◽  
Physical Development ◽  
Kuala Lumpur ◽  
Tropical Fruits ◽  
Childhood Experiences ◽  
Common Nature ◽  
Urban And Rural Areas

Direct experiences with nature in childhood are essential for enhancing psychological and physical development in children. However, researches on childhood nature-related experiences and their effects are largely biased toward more developed Western countries. In this study, we created a questionnaire on childhood experiences with nature and surveyed 357 adults (>20 years old) around Kuala Lumpur, the capital of Malaysia, to determine whether younger generations had fewer nature-based experiences than older generations and whether people who grew up in urban areas had fewer experiences than those who grew up in rural areas. We found that playing in rivers or waterfalls and collecting and eating tropical fruits were the most common nature-related activities experienced in childhood. There was a minimal decline in nature-related experiences among generations. However, people who grew up in rural areas had more nature-related experiences than those who grew up in urban areas. The loss of nature areas and increase in population density may accelerate the decline in nature-related experiences in urban areas. Therefore, efforts to create urban parks and other public spaces for reconnecting urban children to nature will become increasingly important for urban planning and environmental education in tropical developing countries such as Malaysia.

Research on Communication Architecture of Power Terminal Access Network

2016 ◽  
Vol 851 ◽  
pp. 626-630
Author(s):  
Bao Zheng ◽  
Yang Wang ◽  
Chong Zhen
Keyword(s):  
Information Transmission ◽  
Electric Power ◽  
Rural Areas ◽  
Communication System ◽  
Urban Areas ◽  
Access Network ◽  
System Communication ◽  
Communication Architecture ◽  
Remote Areas ◽  
Terminal Equipment

With the accelerated pace of urbanization and the increasing number of power users in urban areas, increased the amount of business of urban power communication system. At the same time, the distribution of users in remote areas, such as rural areas has been reduced, which means that the business needs of power communications reduced. For the situation, We proposed a power system communication architecture based on the number of terminal equipment. The scheme will effectively improve the current situation of electric power communication terminal access network, and improve the efficiency of information transmission.

scholarly journals On Maximizing Energy and Spectral Efficiencies Using Small Cells in 5G and Beyond Networks

Sensors ◽  
2020 ◽  
Vol 20 (6) ◽  
pp. 1676
Author(s):  
Rony Kumer Saha
Keyword(s):  
Mobile Networks ◽  
Urban Areas ◽  
Domain Switching ◽  
Base Stations ◽  
System Level ◽  
Small Cells ◽  
Indoor Environments ◽  
Time Frequency ◽  
Power Domain ◽  
The Impact

Addressing high capacity at low power as a key design goal envisages achieving high spectral efficiency (SE) and energy efficiency (EE) for the next-generation mobile networks. Because most data are generated in indoor environments, an ultra-dense deployment of small cells (SCs), particularly within multistory buildings in urban areas, is revealed as an effective technique to improve SE and EE by numerous studies. In this paper, we present a framework exploiting the four most interconnected-domain, including, power, time, frequency, and space, in the perspectives of SE and EE. Unlike existing literature, the framework takes advantage of higher degrees of freedom to maximize SE and EE using in-building SCs for 5G and beyond mobile networks. We derive average capacity, SE, and EE metrics, along with defining the condition for optimality of SE and EE and developing an algorithm for the framework. An extensive system-level evaluation is performed to show the impact of each domain on SE and EE. It is shown that employing multiband enabled SC base stations (SBSs) to increase operating spectrum in frequency-domain, reusing spectrum to SBSs more than once per building in spatial-domain, switching on and off each in-building SBS based on traffic availability to reduce SBS power consumption in power-domain, and using eICIC to avoid co-channel interference due to sharing spectrum with SBSs in time-domain can achieve massive SE and EE. Finally, we show that the proposed framework can satisfy SE, EE, as well as user experience data rate requirements for 5G and beyond mobile networks.

On the way from misery to happiness? A longitudinal perspective on economic migration and well-being

2018 ◽  
Vol 8 (3) ◽  
pp. 307-355
Author(s):  
Fabian Kratz
Keyword(s):  
Rural Areas ◽  
Urban Areas ◽  
Panel Study ◽  
Well Being ◽  
Long Distance ◽  
Economic Migration ◽  
Nationally Representative ◽  
Dynamic Relationships ◽  
Migration Type ◽  
Selection Of

Abstract The assessment of returns from migration lies at the very heart of migration research. While a growing body of literature examines the links between migration and well-being, dynamic relationships require further elaboration. Using the longest running, nationally representative panel study with information on well-being, the German Socio-Economic Panel (1985–2016) this article addresses two essential, as yet unresolved, questions: How does the favourable self-selection of economic migrants affect their well-being before relocation?How does the well-being of economic migrants develop when individuals approach migration, and thereafter? Results show that—although favourably selected regarding determinants of well-being—economically motivated migrants are not happier before relocating than those who stay. Furthermore, economic migration has a causal impact on well-being, net of both observed and unobserved differences between migrants and stayers. This impact is transitory for women and long-lasting for men. For men, the results corroborate the view that migration enables access to opportunity structures favouring the pursuit of individual happiness. Results also differ by migration type: While long-distance movers and return migrants show a period of depressed happiness before a move, these findings do not hold for short-distance and onward migrants. Furthermore, moving towards urban areas results in stronger permanent effects than moving towards rural areas.

scholarly journals A Review on EcoSan (Ecological Sanitation)

2021 ◽  
Vol 9 (VII) ◽  
pp. 1806-1807
Author(s):  
Chetan Joshi
Keyword(s):  
Developing Countries ◽  
Rural Areas ◽  
Urban Areas ◽  
Cost Effective ◽  
Nutrient Cycle ◽  
Nutrient Contents ◽  
Sanitation Services ◽  
Ecological Sanitation ◽  
Treatment Techniques ◽  
Urban And Rural Areas

In today’s world about 2.4billion people from urban and rural areas do not have suitable access to sanitation services. In upcoming 20 years, it is estimated that a surplus of 2 billion will get migrated to urban areas, probably in developing countries, necessitating sanitation. Still greater than 90% of sewage in developing countries is discharged unprocessed polluting water bodies. Traditional sanitation ideas are neither ecofriendly nor cost-effective for developing countries. Ecological Sanitation (EcoSan) is a sanitation system having a cycle of sustainable closed-loop system, which winds up the breach between sanitation and agriculture. The EcoSan technique is resource minded and characterize a universal approach towards ecofriendly and economically healthy sanitation. The primary goal is to close water and nutrient cycle with minimum expenses on energy and material to subsidize a sustainable development. Human excreta is treated as resource and are generally handled on-site and treated off-site. The nutrient contents in excreta are reutilized by using them in agriculture. EcoSan is a complete methodology. Single practices are only measures to termination and may range from near-natural wastewater treatment techniques to compost toilets, uncomplicated domestic installations to complex, mainly decentralized systems. These technologies are not ecofriendly but only in relation with witnessed environment. They are chosen from complete range of available conventional, traditional and modern techniques merging them to EcoSan system.

scholarly journals E-Learning Effectiveness Analysis in Developing Countries: East Nusa Tenggara, Indonesia Perspective

2018 ◽  
Vol 7 (3) ◽  
pp. 417-424
Author(s):  
Sfenrianto Sfenrianto ◽  
Ellen Tantrisna ◽  
Habibullah Akbar ◽  
Mochamad Wahyudi
Keyword(s):  
Developing Countries ◽  
Rural Areas ◽  
Urban Areas ◽  
Capital City ◽  
Learning Effectiveness ◽  
Effectiveness Analysis ◽  
Higher Institution ◽  
E Learning ◽  
Big Cities ◽  
Culture Technology

The adoption of e-learning in developing countries like Indonesian Universities have been focused in urban areas like the big cities, especially in Java island. There is a lack of development of e-learning in a remote city like Kupang East Nusa Tenggara Indonesia which is located far away from the capital city. This research aims to assess the effectiveness of e-learning by analyzing three factors in one of the higher institution in Kupang city, i.e. Sekolah Tinggi Kesehatan Citra Mandiri Husada Kupang (STIKes CHMK). The factors include culture, technology and infrastructure, and content satisfaction. The data were collected using questionnaires. Research shows that with proper preparation for e-learning, the acceptance of e-learning in rural areas is significantly high. This finding suggests that e-learning can greatly benefit the students like Kupang city in developing countries.

scholarly journals Analysing Educational Waste in the Punjab Schools

1996 ◽  
Vol 35 (4II) ◽  
pp. 581-592
Author(s):  
Muhammad Rafiq
Keyword(s):  
Public Schools ◽  
Rural Areas ◽  
Urban Areas ◽  
Cohort Analysis ◽  
School Capacity ◽  
Long Distance ◽  
Blind Alley ◽  
Analysis Technique ◽  
Internal Efficiency ◽  
Girls School

This paper examines educational waste in the Punjab Public Schools. The paper focuses upon three areas: schools’ internal efficiency, school capacity utilisation and student teacher ratio. By using cohort analysis technique, the paper measures waste in flows of students in the education cycle. The results show that repetition and dropout are more prevalent in class I and middle school classes. This implies that after having studied for five to six years in schools, a student finds themselves in a blind alley, not knowing where it all would end up. This also suggests that majority of the schools are located at large distance from the most of the population of the Punjab and students have to travel long distance for attending the schools. The under-utilisation of school capacity is more prevalent in rural area than that of urban areas and girls schools are more under-utilised than the boys schools. The under-utilisation is more widespread in boys schools of urban areas than the girls schools located in same vicinity and girls school in rural areas are more under-utilised than the boys schools. The pervasive theme emerged from results is that girls schools and teachers are mostly under-utilised. This reflects that disadvantage that girls face in Pakistan which may also cause under-utilisation of girls schools.

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