Differential Inhibitory Control of Semicircular Canal Nerve Afferent-Evoked Inputs in Second-Order Vestibular Neurons by Glycinergic and GABAergic Circuits

2008 ◽  
Vol 99 (4) ◽  
pp. 1758-1769 ◽  
Author(s):  
Stefan Biesdorf ◽  
David Malinvaud ◽  
Ingrid Reichenberger ◽  
Sandra Pfanzelt ◽  
Hans Straka
Keyword(s):  
Inhibitory Control ◽  
Semicircular Canal ◽  
Vestibular Nucleus ◽  
Second Order ◽  
Membrane Properties ◽  
Synaptic Organization ◽  
Nerve Branch ◽  
Postsynaptic Potentials ◽  
Vestibular Neurons ◽  
Intrinsic Signal

Labyrinthine nerve-evoked monosynaptic excitatory postsynaptic potentials (EPSPs) in second-order vestibular neurons (2°VN) sum with disynaptic inhibitory postsynaptic potentials (IPSPs) that originate from the thickest afferent fibers of the same nerve branch and are mediated by neurons in the ipsilateral vestibular nucleus. Pharmacological properties of the inhibition and the interaction with the afferent excitation were studied by recording monosynaptic responses of phasic and tonic 2°VN in an isolated frog brain after electrical stimulation of individual semicircular canal nerves. Specific transmitter antagonists revealed glycine and GABAA receptor-mediated IPSPs with a disynaptic onset only in phasic but not in tonic 2°VN. Compared with GABAergic IPSPs, glycinergic responses in phasic 2°VN have larger amplitudes and a longer duration and reduce early and late components of the afferent nerve-evoked subthreshold activation and spike discharge. The difference in profile of the disynaptic glycinergic and GABAergic inhibition is compatible with the larger number of glycinergic as opposed to GABAergic terminal-like structures on 2°VN. The increase in monosynaptic excitation after a block of the disynaptic inhibition in phasic 2°VN is in part mediated by a N-methyl-d-aspartate receptor-activated component. Although inhibitory inputs were superimposed on monosynaptic EPSPs in tonic 2°VN as well, the much longer latency of these IPSPs excludes a control by short-latency inhibitory feed-forward side-loops as observed in phasic 2°VN. The differential synaptic organization of the inhibitory control of labyrinthine afferent signals in phasic and tonic 2°VN is consistent with the different intrinsic signal processing modes of the two neuronal types and suggests a co-adaptation of intrinsic membrane properties and emerging network properties.

scholarly journals Canal-Specific Excitation and Inhibition of Frog Second-Order Vestibular Neurons

1997 ◽  
Vol 78 (3) ◽  
pp. 1363-1372 ◽  
Author(s):  
H. Straka ◽  
S. Biesdorf ◽  
N. Dieringer
Keyword(s):  
Electrical Stimulation ◽  
Semicircular Canal ◽  
Second Order ◽  
Projection Neurons ◽  
Postsynaptic Potentials ◽  
Vestibular Neurons ◽  
Inhibitory Postsynaptic Potentials ◽  
Monosynaptic Epsp ◽  
Stimulation Of ◽  
Monosynaptic Excitation

Straka, H., S. Biesdorf, and N. Dieringer. Canal-specific excitation and inhibition of frog second-order vestibular neurons. J. Neurophysiol. 78: 1363–1372, 1997. Second-order vestibular neurons (2°VNs) were identified in the in vitro frog brain by their monosynaptic excitation following electrical stimulation of the ipsilateral VIIIth nerve. Ipsilateral disynaptic inhibitory postsynaptic potentials were revealed by bath application of the glycine antagonist strychnine or of the γ-aminobutyric acid-A (GABAA) antagonist bicuculline. Ipsilateral disynaptic excitatory postsynaptic potentials (EPSPs) were analyzed as well. The functional organization of convergent monosynaptic and disynaptic excitatory and inhibitory inputs onto 2°VNs was studied by separate electrical stimulation of individual semicircular canal nerves on the ipsilateral side. Most 2°VNs (88%) received a monosynaptic EPSP exclusively from one of the three semicircular canal nerves; fewer 2°VNs (10%) were monosynaptically excited from two semicircular canal nerves; and even fewer 2°VNs (2%) were monosynaptically excited from each of the three semicircular canal nerves. Disynaptic EPSPs were present in the majority of 2°VNs (68%) and originated from the same (homonymous) semicircular canal nerve that activated a monosynaptic EPSP in a given neuron (22%), from one or both of the other two (heteronymous) canal nerves (18%), or from all three canal nerves (28%). Homonymous activation of disynaptic EPSPs prevailed (74%) among those 2°VNs that exhibited disynaptic EPSPs. Disynaptic inhibitory postsynaptic potentials (IPSPs) were mediated in 90% of the tested 2°VNs by glycine, in 76% by GABA, and in 62% by GABA as well as by glycine. These IPSPs were activated almost exclusively from the same semicircular canal nerve that evoked the monosynaptic EPSP in a given 2°VN. Our results demonstrate a canal-specific, modular organization of vestibular nerve afferent fiber inputs onto 2°VNs that consists of a monosynaptic excitation from one semicircular canal nerve followed by disynaptic excitatory and inhibitory inputs originating from the homonymous canal nerve. Excitatory and inhibitory second-order (2°) vestibular interneurons are envisaged to form side loops that mediate spatially similar but dynamically different signals to 2° vestibular projection neurons. These feedforward side loops are suited to adjust the dynamic response properties of 2° vestibular projection neurons by facilitating or disfacilitating phasic and tonic input components.

scholarly journals Differential Spatial Organization of Otolith Signals in Frog Vestibular Nuclei

2003 ◽  
Vol 90 (5) ◽  
pp. 3501-3512 ◽  
Author(s):  
Hans Straka ◽  
Stefan Holler ◽  
Fumiyuki Goto ◽  
Florian P. Kolb ◽  
Edwin Gilland
Keyword(s):  
Spatial Organization ◽  
Vestibular Nucleus ◽  
Field Potential ◽  
Vestibular Function ◽  
Vestibular Nuclei ◽  
Second Order ◽  
Vestibular Neurons ◽  
Dorsal Nucleus ◽  
Sensory Map ◽  
Saccular Nerve

Activation maps of pre- and postsynaptic field potential components evoked by separate electrical stimulation of utricular, lagenar, and saccular nerve branches in the isolated frog hindbrain were recorded within a stereotactic outline of the vestibular nuclei. Utricular and lagenar nerve-evoked activation maps overlapped strongly in the lateral and descending vestibular nuclei, whereas lagenar amplitudes were greater in the superior vestibular nucleus. In contrast, the saccular nerve-evoked activation map coincided largely with the dorsal nucleus and the adjacent dorsal part of the lateral vestibular nucleus, corroborating a major auditory and lesser vestibular function of the frog saccule. The stereotactic position of individual second-order otolith neurons matched the distribution of the corresponding otolith nerve-evoked activation maps. Furthermore, particular types of second-order utricular and lagenar neurons were clustered with particular types of second-order canal neurons in a topology that anatomically mirrored the preferred convergence pattern of afferent otolith and canal signals in second-order vestibular neurons. Similarities in the spatial organization of functionally equivalent types of second-order otolith and canal neurons between frog and other vertebrates indicated conservation of a common topographical organization principle. However, the absence of a precise afferent sensory topography combined with the presence of spatially segregated groups of particular second-order vestibular neurons suggests that the vestibular circuitry is organized as a premotor map rather than an organotypical sensory map. Moreover, the conserved segmental location of individual vestibular neuronal phenotypes shows linkage of individual components of vestibulomotor pathways with the underlying genetically specified rhombomeric framework.

Long-Term Plasticity of Ipsilesional Medial Vestibular Nucleus Neurons After Unilateral Labyrinthectomy

2003 ◽  
Vol 90 (1) ◽  
pp. 184-203 ◽  
Author(s):  
Mathieu Beraneck ◽  
Mohammed Hachemaoui ◽  
Erwin Idoux ◽  
Laurence Ris ◽  
Atsuhiko Uno ◽  
...  
Keyword(s):  
Vestibular Nucleus ◽  
Type A ◽  
Vestibular Compensation ◽  
Membrane Properties ◽  
Medial Vestibular Nucleus ◽  
Type B ◽  
Dynamic Membrane ◽  
Vestibular Neurons ◽  
Unilateral Labyrinthectomy

Unilateral labyrinthectomy results in oculomotor and postural disturbances that regress in a few days during vestibular compensation. The long-term (after 1 mo) consequences of unilateral labyrinthectomy were investigated by characterizing the static and dynamic membrane properties of the ipsilesional vestibular neurons recorded intracellularly in guinea pig brain stem slices. We compared the responses of type A and type B medial vestibular nucleus neurons identified in vitro to current steps and ramps and to sinusoidal currents of various frequencies. All ipsilesional vestibular neurons were depolarized by 6–10 mV at rest compared with the cells recorded from control slices. Both their average membrane potential and firing threshold were more depolarized, which suggests that changes in active conductances compensated for the loss of excitatory afferents. The afterhyperpolarization and discharge regularity of type B but not type A neurons were increased. All ipsilesional vestibular cells became more sensitive to current injections over a large range of frequencies (0.2–30 Hz), but this increase in sensitivity was greater for type B than for type A neurons. This was associated with an increase of the peak frequency of linear response restricted to type B neurons, from 4–6 to 12–14 Hz. Altogether, we show that long-term vestibular compensation involves major changes in the membrane properties of vestibular neurons on the deafferented side. Many of the static and dynamic membrane properties of type B neurons became more similar to those of type A neurons than in control slices, leading to an increase in the overall homogeneity of medial vestibular nucleus neurons.

Second-Order Vestibular Neurons Form Separate Populations With Different Membrane and Discharge Properties

2004 ◽  
Vol 92 (2) ◽  
pp. 845-861 ◽  
Author(s):  
H. Straka ◽  
M. Beraneck ◽  
M. Rohregger ◽  
L. E. Moore ◽  
P.-P. Vidal ◽  
...  
Keyword(s):  
Electrical Stimulation ◽  
Second Order ◽  
Membrane Properties ◽  
Discharge Pattern ◽  
Response Dynamics ◽  
Vestibular Neurons ◽  
Positive Current ◽  
Current Steps ◽  
Passive Membrane Properties ◽  
Stimulation Of

Membrane and discharge properties were determined in second-order vestibular neurons (2°VN) in the isolated brain of grass frogs. 2°VN were identified by monosynaptic excitatory postsynaptic potentials after separate electrical stimulation of the utricular nerve, the lagenar nerve, or individual semicircular canal nerves. 2°VN were classified as vestibulo-ocular or -spinal neurons by the presence of antidromic spikes evoked by electrical stimulation of the spinal cord or the oculomotor nuclei. Differences in passive membrane properties, spike shape, and discharge pattern in response to current steps and ramp-like currents allowed a differentiation of frog 2°VN into two separate, nonoverlapping types of vestibular neurons. A larger subgroup of 2°VN (78%) was characterized by brief, high-frequency bursts of up to five spikes and the absence of a subsequent continuous discharge in response to positive current steps. In contrast, the smaller subgroup of 2°VN (22%) exhibited a continuous discharge with moderate adaptation in response to positive current steps. The differences in the evoked spike discharge pattern were paralleled by differences in passive membrane properties and spike shapes. Despite these differences in membrane properties, both types, i.e., phasic and tonic 2°VN, occupied similar anatomical locations and displayed similar afferent and efferent connectivities. Differences in response dynamics of the two types of 2°VN match those of their pre- and postsynaptic neurons. The existence of distinct populations of 2°VN that differ in response dynamics but not in the spatial organization of their afferent inputs and efferent connectivity to motor targets suggests that frog 2°VN form one part of parallel vestibulomotor pathways.

Neuronal activity in the ipsilateral vestibular nucleus following unilateral labyrinthectomy in the alert guinea pig

1995 ◽  
Vol 74 (5) ◽  
pp. 2087-2099 ◽  
Author(s):  
L. Ris ◽  
C. de Waele ◽  
M. Serafin ◽  
P. P. Vidal ◽  
E. Godaux
Keyword(s):  
Guinea Pig ◽  
Vestibular Nucleus ◽  
Head Rotation ◽  
Second Order ◽  
Vestibular Nerve ◽  
Control Group ◽  
Head Velocity ◽  
Vestibular Neurons ◽  
Unilateral Labyrinthectomy ◽  
Control State

1. Neuronal activity was investigated in the left superior vestibular nucleus (SVN), lateral vestibular nucleus (LVN), and rostral part of the medial vestibular nucleus (MVN) in the alert guinea pig after a unilateral (left) labyrinthectomy was performed. Vestibular neurons were recorded either immediately (just-postoperative group, n = 6) or 1 wk after labyrinthectomy (1-wk-postoperative group, n = 6) and compared with the activity recorded in intact animals (control group, n = 6). 2. Animals were prepared for extracellular recording of single-unit activity and for eye movement recording (scleral search coil technique). To enable stimulation of the left vestibular nerve, bipolar silver ball electrodes were chronically implanted either in contact with the bony labyrinth in the control group or close to the stump of the vestibular nerve after labyrinthectomy. Complete labyrinthectomy was performed under halothane anesthesia. 3. The criterion used to select vestibular neurons for analysis was their recruitment by an electric shock on the vestibular nerve. Of the 589 recorded neurons, 424, defined as second-order vestibular neurons, were recruited at monosynaptic latencies (0.85-1.15 ms) and 165 were recruited at polysynaptic latencies. One hundred three second-order vestibular neurons were recorded in the control group, 173 in the just-postoperative group, and 148 in the 1-wk-postoperative group. 4. The activity of the electrically recruited neurons was recorded during sinusoidal horizontal head rotation in the dark (0.3 Hz, 40 degrees/s peak velocity). The behavior of the neurons was analyzed by plotting their firing rate against head velocity. The Y-intercept of the regression line was used to express spontaneous firing rate (resting discharge), and its slope was used to express the sensitivity of the neuron-to-head velocity. 5. In the absence of statistically significant difference between the characteristics of the neuronal discharge of the second-order vestibular neurons recorded in the SVN, LVN, and rostral MVN, the data were pooled. The Resting discharge of these cells amounted to 41.0 +/- 24.7 (SD) spikes/s in the control state, fell to 7.2 +/- 13.9 spikes/s just after labyrinthectomy, and completely returned to normal values 1 wk after surgery (42.5 +/- 21.6 spikes/s). Among the monosynaptically recruited neurons, the percentage of silent units was 0% in the control group, 69% in the just-postoperative group, and 0% in the 1-wk-postoperative group. 6. By contrast, the sensitivity to head velocity of the second-order vestibular neurons, which was 0.69 +/- 0.48 (SD) spikes.s-1/deg.s-1 in the control state and which fell to 0.03 +/- 0.11 spikes.s-1/deg.s-1 just after labyrinthectomy, remained low 1 wk after injury (0.21 +/- 0.26 spikes.s-1/deg.s-1). Moreover, the slight recovery of sensitivity to head rotation was due only to units behaving as type II neurons. 7. The mean resting discharge of the polysynaptically recruited neurons (pooled from the 3 explored nuclei) was 31.6 +/- 19.3 spikes/s in the control group. It decreased to 11.6 +/- 12.1 spikes/s in the just-postoperative group and recovered to 39.8 +/- 20.2 spikes/s in the 1-wk-postoperative group. No neuron was silent at rest either in the control group or in the 1-wk-postoperative group. Just after labyrinthectomy, 35% of the neurons had a null resting activity. The mean sensitivity to head velocity of these neurons was 0.55 +/- 0.42 spikes.s-1/deg.s-1 in the control group. It decreased to 0.05 +/- 0.12 spikes.s-1/deg.s-1 in the just-postoperative group and recovered to 0.22 +/- 0.17 spikes.s-1/deg.s-1 in the 1-wk-postoperative group. 8. We conclude that, at least in the guinea pig, the restoration of the spontaneous activity of the deafferented neurons is complete 1 wk after a unilateral labyrinthectomy and thus probably plays an important role in vestibular compensation...

Vestibuloocular Reflex of the Adult Flatfish. III. A Species-Specific Reciprocal Pattern of Excitation and Inhibition

2001 ◽  
Vol 86 (3) ◽  
pp. 1376-1388 ◽  
Author(s):  
Werner Graf ◽  
Robert Spencer ◽  
Harriet Baker ◽  
Robert Baker
Keyword(s):  
Electrical Stimulation ◽  
Synaptic Vesicles ◽  
Second Order ◽  
Vestibuloocular Reflex ◽  
Horizontal Canal ◽  
Postsynaptic Potentials ◽  
Synaptic Contacts ◽  
Vestibular Neurons ◽  
Species Specific ◽  
Stimulation Of

In juvenile flatfish the vestibuloocular reflex (VOR) circuitry that underlies compensatory eye movements adapts to a 90° relative displacement of vestibular and oculomotor reference frames during metamorphosis. VOR pathways are rearranged to allow horizontal canal-activated second-order vestibular neurons in adult flatfish to control extraocular motoneurons innervating vertical eye muscles. This study describes the anatomy and physiology of identified flatfish-specific excitatory and inhibitory vestibular pathways. In antidromically identified oculomotor and trochlear motoneurons, excitatory postsynaptic potentials (EPSPs) were elicited after electrical stimulation of the horizontal canal nerve expected to provide excitatory input. Electrotonic depolarizations (0.8–0.9 ms) preceded small amplitude (<0.5 mV) chemical EPSPs at 1.2–1.6 ms with much larger EPSPs (>1 mV) recorded around 2.5 ms. Stimulation of the opposite horizontal canal nerve produced inhibitory postsynaptic potentials (IPSPs) at a disynaptic latency of 1.6–1.8 ms that were depolarizing at membrane resting potentials around −60 mV. Injection of chloride ions increased IPSP amplitude, and current-clamp analysis showed the IPSP equilibrium potential to be near the membrane resting potential. Repeated electrical stimulation of either the excitatory or inhibitory horizontal canal vestibular nerve greatly increased the amplitude of the respective synaptic responses. These observations suggest that the large terminal arborizations of each VOR neuron imposes an electrotonic load requiring multiple action potentials to maximize synaptic efficacy. GABA antibodies labeled axons in the medial longitudinal fasciculus (MLF) some of which were hypothesized to originate from horizontal canal-activated inhibitory vestibular neurons. GABAergic terminal arborizations were distributed largely on the somata and proximal dendrites of oculomotor and trochlear motoneurons. These findings suggest that the species-specific horizontal canal inhibitory pathway exhibits similar electrophysiological and synaptic transmitter profiles as the anterior and posterior canal inhibitory projections to oculomotor and trochlear motoneurons. Electron microscopy showed axosomatic and axodendritic synaptic endings containing spheroidal synaptic vesicles to establish chemical excitatory synaptic contacts characterized by asymmetrical pre/postsynaptic membrane specializations as well as gap junctional contacts consistent with electrotonic coupling. Another type of axosomatic synaptic ending contained pleiomorphic synaptic vesicles forming chemical, presumed inhibitory, synaptic contacts on motoneurons that never included gap junctions. Altogether these data provide electrophysiological, immunohistochemical, and ultrastructural evidence for reciprocal excitatory/inhibitory organization of the novel vestibulooculomotor projections in adult flatfish. The appearance of unique second-order vestibular neurons linking the horizontal canal to vertical oculomotor neurons suggests that reciprocal excitation and inhibition are a fundamental, developmentally linked trait of compensatory eye movement circuits in vertebrates.

Direct projections from vestibular nuclei to facial nucleus in cats

1983 ◽  
Vol 50 (6) ◽  
pp. 1265-1280 ◽  
Author(s):  
M. D. Shaw ◽  
R. Baker
Keyword(s):  
Nerve Stimulation ◽  
Vestibular Nucleus ◽  
Medial Vestibular Nucleus ◽  
Facial Nucleus ◽  
Antidromic Activation ◽  
Postsynaptic Potentials ◽  
Vestibular Neurons ◽  
Time To Peak ◽  
Trigeminal Nerve Stimulation ◽  
Facial Motoneurons

Postsynaptic potentials were recorded from motoneurons in the facial nucleus in response to stimulation of the vestibular and trigeminal nerves. The motoneurons were identified by antidromic activation from their peripheral axons. Disynaptic excitatory and inhibitory postsynaptic potentials (EPSPs and IPSPs) and mixed EPSP/IPSPs were recorded in response to vestibular nerve stimulation, ranging in latency from 0.9 to 2.1 ms, with most at 1.5 ms. Activity in secondary vestibular axons recorded within the facial nucleus occurred at a latency of 0.7-1.1 ms. The amplitudes of the vestibular postsynaptic potentials were small, generally less than a millivolt, but double shocks produced marked summation. The average time to peak of ipsilateral vestibular EPSPs, 1.1 ms, was faster than that of either ipsilateral IPSPs, 1.6 ms, or contralateral EPSPs, 1.4 ms. The double-spiked vestibular activity was detectable in double-peaked PSPs. Disynaptic EPSPs, ranging in latency from 2.0 to 3.0 ms, were recorded in response to trigeminal nerve stimulation. The average time to peak was 1.3 ms. The multiple-spiked activity of the trigeminal neurons was detectable in multipeaked EPSPs. Inhibitory ipsilateral effects (Vi IPSPs) were recorded twice as often as excitatory ipsilateral effects (Vi EPSPs), being found in 29% versus 15% of the motoneurons. Contralateral effects were found in 13% of the motoneurons studied, and almost all were excitatory. Analysis of synaptic potential shapes suggested that the excitatory and inhibitory vestibular synapses probably contact distal dendrites preferentially, with the excitatory connections being somewhat closer to the soma. The trigeminal inputs probably contact the facial motoneurons more extensively near the soma. Horseradish peroxidase was injected into the facial nucleus, and retrograde uptake by vestibular neurons was studied. The majority of filled vestibular neurons was ipsilateral to the injection site, especially in the medial vestibular nucleus, ventral y group, and supravestibular nucleus. On the contralateral side, filled vestibular cells were found almost exclusively in the medial nucleus. Filled cells were also noted in the trigeminal nucleus, predominantly ipsilaterally at all rostrocaudal levels. We have demonstrated monosynaptic projections to facial motoneurons from both vestibular and trigeminal nuclei. The trigeminal input is likely to be involved in facial reflexes, especially blinking and grimacing. The afferent vestibular population overlaps that going to the oculomotor and cervical motoneurons; these projections may be collaterals of single vestibular neurons.4+.

Patterns of Canal and Otolith Afferent Input Convergence in Frog Second-Order Vestibular Neurons

2002 ◽  
Vol 88 (5) ◽  
pp. 2287-2301 ◽  
Author(s):  
H. Straka ◽  
S. Holler ◽  
F. Goto
Keyword(s):  
Semicircular Canal ◽  
Linear Acceleration ◽  
Afferent Input ◽  
Second Order ◽  
Head Movements ◽  
Otolith Organs ◽  
Otolith Organ ◽  
Horizontal Canal ◽  
Vestibular Neurons ◽  
Saccular Nerve

Second-order vestibular neurons (2°VN) were identified in the isolated frog brain by the presence of monosynaptic excitatory postsynaptic potentials (EPSPs) after separate electrical stimulation of individual vestibular nerve branches. Combinations of one macular and the three semicircular canal nerve branches or combinations of two macular nerve branches were stimulated separately in different sets of experiments. Monosynaptic EPSPs evoked from the utricle or from the lagena converged with monosynaptic EPSPs from one of the three semicircular canal organs in ∼30% of 2°VN. Utricular afferent signals converged predominantly with horizontal canal afferent signals (74%), and lagenar afferent signals converged with anterior vertical (63%) or posterior vertical (37%) but not with horizontal canal afferent signals. This convergence pattern correlates with the coactivation of particular combinations of canal and otolith organs during natural head movements. A convergence of afferent saccular and canal signals was restricted to very few 2°VN (3%). In contrast to the considerable number of 2°VN that received an afferent input from the utricle or the lagena as well as from one of the three canal nerves (∼30%), smaller numbers of 2°VN (14% of each type of 2°otolith or 2°canal neuron) received an afferent input from only one particular otolith organ or from only one particular semicircular canal organ. Even fewer 2°VN received an afferent input from more than one semicircular canal or from more than one otolith nerve (∼7% each). Among 2°VN with afferent inputs from more than one otolith nerve, an afferent saccular nerve input was particularly rare (4–5%). The restricted convergence of afferent saccular inputs with other afferent otolith or canal inputs as well as the termination pattern of saccular afferent fibers are compatible with a substrate vibration sensitivity of this otolith organ in frog. The ascending and/or descending projections of identified 2°VN were determined by the presence of antidromic spikes. 2°VN mediating afferent utricular and/or semicircular canal nerve signals had ascending and/or descending axons. 2°VN mediating afferent lagenar or saccular nerve signals had descending but no ascending axons. The latter result is consistent with the absence of short-latency macular signals on extraocular motoneurons during vertical linear acceleration. Comparison of data from frog and cat demonstrated the presence of a similar organization pattern of maculo- and canal-ocular reflexes in both species.

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