Variation in natural plant products and the attraction of bodyguards involved in indirect plant defenseThe present review is one in the special series of reviews on animal–plant interactions.

2010 ◽  
Vol 88 (7) ◽  
pp. 628-667 ◽  
Author(s):  
Roland Mumm ◽  
Marcel Dicke
Keyword(s):  
Plant Defense ◽  
Natural Enemies ◽  
Abiotic Factors ◽  
Green Leaf Volatiles ◽  
Research Field ◽  
Trophic Levels ◽  
Plant Interactions ◽  
Leaf Volatiles ◽  
Plant Volatile ◽  
Indirect Plant Defense

Plants can respond to feeding or egg deposition by herbivorous arthropods by changing the volatile blend that they emit. These herbivore-induced plant volatiles (HIPVs) can attract carnivorous natural enemies of the herbivores, such as parasitoids and predators, a phenomenon that is called indirect plant defense. The volatile blends of infested plants can be very complex, sometimes consisting of hundreds of compounds. Most HIPVs can be classified as terpenoids (e.g., (E)-β-ocimene, (E,E)-α-farnesene, (E)-4,8-dimethyl-1,3,7-nonatriene), green leaf volatiles (e.g., hexanal, (Z)-3-hexen-1-ol, (Z)-3-hexenyl acetate), phenylpropanoids (e.g., methyl salicylate, indole), and sulphur- or nitrogen-containing compounds (e.g., isothiocyanates or nitriles, respectively). One highly intriguing question has been which volatiles out of the complex blend are the most important ones for the carnivorous natural enemies to locate "suitable host plants. Here, we review the methods and techniques that have been used to elucidate the carnivore-attracting compounds. Electrophysiological methods such as electroantennography have been used with parasitoids to elucidate which compounds can be perceived by the antennae. Different types of elicitors and inhibitors have widely been applied to manipulate plant volatile blends. Furthermore, transgenic plants that were genetically modified in specific steps in one of the signal transduction pathways or biosynthetic routes have been used to find steps in HIPV emission crucial for indirect plant defense. Furthermore, we provide an overview on biotic and abiotic factors that influence the emission of HIPVs and how this can affect the interactions between members of different trophic levels. Consequently, we review the progress that has been made in this exciting research field during the past 30 years since the first studies on HIPVs emerged and we highlight important issues to be addressed in the future.

scholarly journals Effects of Abiotic Factors on HIPV-Mediated Interactions between Plants and Parasitoids

2015 ◽  
Vol 2015 ◽  
pp. 1-18 ◽  
Author(s):  
Christine Becker ◽  
Nicolas Desneux ◽  
Lucie Monticelli ◽  
Xavier Fernandez ◽  
Thomas Michel ◽  
...  
Keyword(s):  
Plant Volatiles ◽  
Global Climate ◽  
Abiotic Factors ◽  
Biotic Interactions ◽  
Green Leaf Volatiles ◽  
Limited Attention ◽  
Emission Rates ◽  
Leaf Volatiles ◽  
Parasitic Hymenoptera ◽  
Growing Conditions

In contrast to constitutively emitted plant volatiles (PV), herbivore-induced plant volatiles (HIPV) are specifically emitted by plants when afflicted with herbivores. HIPV can be perceived by parasitoids and predators which parasitize or prey on the respective herbivores, including parasitic hymenoptera. HIPV act as signals and facilitate host/prey detection. They comprise a blend of compounds: main constituents are terpenoids and “green leaf volatiles.” Constitutive emission of PV is well known to be influenced by abiotic factors like temperature, light intensity, water, and nutrient availability. HIPV share biosynthetic pathways with constitutively emitted PV and might therefore likewise be affected by abiotic conditions. However, the effects of abiotic factors on HIPV-mediated biotic interactions have received only limited attention to date. HIPV being influenced by the plant’s growing conditions could have major implications for pest management. Quantitative and qualitative changes in HIPV blends may improve or impair biocontrol. Enhanced emission of HIPV may attract a larger number of natural enemies. Reduced emission rates or altered compositions, however, may render blends imperceptible to parasitoides and predators. Predicting the outcome of these changes is highly important for food production and for ecosystems affected by global climate change.

scholarly journals A comparative study of plant volatiles induced by insect and gastropod herbivory

2021 ◽  
Vol 11 (1) ◽  
Author(s):  
Leslie Mann ◽  
Diane Laplanche ◽  
Ted C. J. Turlings ◽  
Gaylord A. Desurmont
Keyword(s):  
Plant Species ◽  
Spodoptera Littoralis ◽  
Green Leaf Volatiles ◽  
Plant Responses ◽  
Insect Damage ◽  
Leaf Volatiles ◽  
Plant Volatile ◽  
Different Types ◽  
Cultivated Plant ◽  
Generalist Insect

AbstractInsect and gastropod herbivores are major plant consumers and their importance in the evolution of plant defensive traits is broadly recognized. However, their respective effects on plant responses have rarely been compared. Here we focused on plant volatile emissions (VOCs) following herbivory and compared the effects of herbivory by caterpillars of the generalist insect Spodoptera littoralis and by generalist slugs of the genus Arion on the VOCs emissions of 14 cultivated plant species. Results revealed that plants consistently produced higher amounts of volatiles and responded more specifically to caterpillar than to slug herbivory. Specifically, plants released on average 6.0 times more VOCs (total), 8.9 times more green leaf volatiles, 4.2 times more terpenoids, 6.0 times more aromatic hydrocarbons, and 5.7 times more other VOCs in response to 1 cm2 of insect damage than to 1 cm2 of slug damage. Interestingly, four of the plant species tested produced a distinct blend of volatiles following insect damage but not slug damage. These findings may result from different chemical elicitors or from physical differences in herbivory by the two herbivores. This study is an important step toward a more inclusive view of plant responses to different types of herbivores.

scholarly journals Multi-trophic communities re-establish with canopy cover and microclimate in a subtropical forest biodiversity experiment

Oecologia ◽  
2021 ◽  
Author(s):  
Felix Fornoff ◽  
Michael Staab ◽  
Chao-Dong Zhu ◽  
Alexandra-Maria Klein
Keyword(s):  
Species Richness ◽  
Community Composition ◽  
Natural Enemies ◽  
Trophic Position ◽  
Abiotic Factors ◽  
Canopy Cover ◽  
Tree Diversity ◽  
Trophic Levels ◽  
Tree Biomass ◽  
Wasp Species

AbstractPlant diversity affects multi-trophic communities, but in young regrowth forests, where forest insects are in the process of re-establishment, other biotic and also abiotic factors might be more important. We studied cavity-nesting bees, wasps and their natural enemies along an experimental tree diversity gradient in subtropical South-East China. We compared insect communities of experimental young forests with communities of established natural forests nearby the experiment and tested for direct and indirect effects of tree diversity, tree basal area (a proxy of tree biomass), canopy cover and microclimate on bee and wasp community composition, abundance and species richness. Finally, we tested if the trophic levels of bees, herbivore-hunting wasps, spider-hunting wasps and their natural enemies respond similarly. Forest bee and wasp community composition re-established towards communities of the natural forest with increasing tree biomass and canopy cover. These factors directly and indirectly, via microclimatic conditions, increased the abundance of bees, wasps and their natural enemies. While bee and wasp species richness increased with abundance and both were not related to tree diversity, abundance increased directly with canopy cover, mediated by tree biomass. Abundance of natural enemies increased with host (bee and wasp) abundance irrespective of their trophic position. In conclusion, although maximizing tree diversity is an important goal of reforestation and forest conservation, rapid closure of canopies is also important for re-establishing communities of forest bees, wasps and their natural enemies.

scholarly journals Light dominates the diurnal emissions of herbivore-induced volatiles in wild tobacco

2021 ◽  
Vol 21 (1) ◽  
Author(s):  
Jun He ◽  
Rayko Halitschke ◽  
Meredith C. Schuman ◽  
Ian T. Baldwin
Keyword(s):  
Light Stress ◽  
Time Lag ◽  
Regulatory Elements ◽  
Stomatal Resistance ◽  
Green Leaf Volatiles ◽  
Leaf Volatiles ◽  
Induced Volatiles ◽  
Plant Volatile ◽  
Role Of Light

Abstract Background Timing is everything when it comes to the fitness outcome of a plant’s ecological interactions, and accurate timing is particularly relevant for interactions with herbivores or mutualists that are based on ephemeral emissions of volatile organic compounds. Previous studies of the wild tobacco N. attenuata have found associations between the diurnal timing of volatile emissions, and daytime predation of herbivores by their natural enemies. Results Here, we investigated the role of light in regulating two biosynthetic groups of volatiles, terpenoids and green leaf volatiles (GLVs), which dominate the herbivore-induced bouquet of N. attenuata. Light deprivation strongly suppressed terpenoid emissions while enhancing GLV emissions, albeit with a time lag. Silencing the expression of photoreceptor genes did not alter terpenoid emission rhythms, but silencing expression of the phytochrome gene, NaPhyB1, disordered the emission of the GLV (Z)-3-hexenyl acetate. External abscisic acid (ABA) treatments increased stomatal resistance, but did not truncate the emission of terpenoid volatiles (recovered in the headspace). However, ABA treatment enhanced GLV emissions and leaf internal pools (recovered from tissue), and reduced internal linalool pools. In contrast to the pattern of diurnal terpenoid emissions and nocturnal GLV emissions, transcripts of herbivore-induced plant volatile (HIPV) biosynthetic genes peaked during the day. The promotor regions of these genes were populated with various cis-acting regulatory elements involved in light-, stress-, phytohormone- and circadian regulation. Conclusions This research provides insights into the complexity of the mechanisms involved in the regulation of HIPV bouquets, a mechanistic complexity which rivals the functional complexity of HIPVs, which includes repelling herbivores, calling for body guards, and attracting pollinators.

scholarly journals Processing of Airborne Green Leaf Volatiles for Their Glycosylation in the Exposed Plants

2021 ◽  
Vol 12 ◽  
Author(s):  
Koichi Sugimoto ◽  
Yoko Iijima ◽  
Junji Takabayashi ◽  
Kenji Matsui
Keyword(s):  
Plant Defense ◽  
Plant Volatiles ◽  
Chemical Cues ◽  
Green Leaf Volatiles ◽  
The Other ◽  
Green Leaf ◽  
Tomato Plants ◽  
Leaf Volatiles ◽  
The Common ◽  
And Function

Green leaf volatiles (GLVs), the common constituents of herbivore-infested plant volatiles (HIPVs), play an important role in plant defense and function as chemical cues to communicate with other individuals in nature. Reportedly, in addition to endogenous GLVs, the absorbance of airborne GLVs emitted by infested neighboring plants also play a major role in plant defense. For example, the exclusive accumulation of (Z)-3-hexenyl vicianoside in the HIPV-exposed tomato plants occurs by the glycosylation of airborne (Z)-3-hexenol (Z3HOL); however, it is unclear how plants process the other absorbed GLVs. This study demonstrates that tomato plants dominantly accumulated GLV–glycosides after exposure to green leaf alcohols [Z3HOL, (E)-2-hexenol, and n-hexanol] using non-targeted LC–MS analysis. Three types of green leaf alcohols were independently glycosylated without isomerization or saturation/desaturation. Airborne green leaf aldehydes and esters were also glycosylated, probably through converting aldehydes and esters into alcohols. Further, we validated these findings in Arabidopsis mutants- (Z)-3-hexenal (Z3HAL) reductase (chr) mutant that inhibits the conversion of Z3HAL to Z3HOL and the acetyl-CoA:(Z)-3-hexen-1-ol acetyltransferase (chat) mutant that impairs the conversion of Z3HOL to (Z)-3-hexenyl acetate. Exposure of the chr and chat mutants to Z3HAL accumulated lower and higher amounts of glycosides than their corresponding wild types (Col-0 and Ler), respectively. These findings suggest that plants process the exogenous GLVs by the reductase(s) and the esterase(s), and a part of the processed GLVs contribute to glycoside accumulation. Overall, the study provides insights into the understanding of the communication of the plants within their ecosystem, which could help develop strategies to protect the crops and maintain a balanced ecosystem.

Review of recent advances on the production and eco-physiological roles of green leaf volatiles

2013 ◽  
Vol 37 (3) ◽  
pp. 268-275
Author(s):  
Hai-Feng SUN ◽  
Zhen-Yu LI ◽  
Bin WU ◽  
Xue-Mei QIN
Keyword(s):  
Green Leaf Volatiles ◽  
Green Leaf ◽  
Leaf Volatiles ◽  
Recent Advances

scholarly journals Optimizing the Production of Recombinant Hydroperoxide Lyase in Escherichia coli Using Statistical Design

Catalysts ◽  
2021 ◽  
Vol 11 (2) ◽  
pp. 176
Author(s):  
Sophie Vincenti ◽  
Magali Mariani ◽  
Jessica Croce ◽  
Eva Faillace ◽  
Virginie Brunini-Bronzini de Caraffa ◽  
...  
Keyword(s):  
Escherichia Coli ◽  
Expression System ◽  
Scale Up ◽  
Food Additives ◽  
Statistical Design ◽  
Green Leaf Volatiles ◽  
Hydroperoxide Lyase ◽  
Soluble Enzyme ◽  
Leaf Volatiles ◽  
Conversion Rates

Hydroperoxide lyase (HPL) catalyzes the synthesis of volatiles C6 or C9 aldehydes from fatty acid hydroperoxides. These short carbon chain aldehydes, known as green leaf volatiles (GLV), are widely used in cosmetic industries and as food additives because of their “fresh green” aroma. To meet the growing demand for natural GLVs, the use of recombinant HPL as a biocatalyst in enzyme-catalyzed processes appears to be an interesting application. Previously, we cloned and expressed a 13-HPL from olive fruit in Escherichia coli and showed high conversion rates (up to 94%) during the synthesis of C6 aldehydes. To consider a scale-up of this process, optimization of the recombinant enzyme production is necessary. In this study, four host-vector combinations were tested. Experimental design and response surface methodology (RSM) were used to optimize the expression conditions. Three factors were considered, i.e., temperature, inducer concentration and induction duration. The Box–Behnken design consisted of 45 assays for each expression system performed in deep-well microplates. The regression models were built and fitted well to the experimental data (R2 coefficient > 97%). The best response (production level of the soluble enzyme) was obtained with E. coli BL21 DE3 cells. Using the optimal conditions, 2277 U L−1of culture of the soluble enzyme was produced in microliter plates and 21,920 U L−1of culture in an Erlenmeyer flask, which represents a 79-fold increase compared to the production levels previously reported.

scholarly journals Identifying appropriate sampling and modelling approaches for analysing distributional patterns of Antarctic terrestrial arthropods along the Victoria Land latitudinal gradient

2010 ◽  
Vol 22 (6) ◽  
pp. 742-748 ◽  
Author(s):  
Tancredi Caruso ◽  
Ian D. Hogg ◽  
Roberto Bargagli
Keyword(s):  
Abiotic Factors ◽  
Relevant Literature ◽  
Biotic Interactions ◽  
Terrestrial Ecosystems ◽  
Climatic Conditions ◽  
Trophic Levels ◽  
Terrestrial Arthropods ◽  
Victoria Land ◽  
Dispersal Capability ◽  
Modelling Techniques

AbstractBiotic communities in Antarctic terrestrial ecosystems are relatively simple and often lack higher trophic levels (e.g. predators); thus, it is often assumed that species’ distributions are mainly affected by abiotic factors such as climatic conditions, which change with increasing latitude, altitude and/or distance from the coast. However, it is becoming increasingly apparent that factors other than geographical gradients affect the distribution of organisms with low dispersal capability such as the terrestrial arthropods. In Victoria Land (East Antarctica) the distribution of springtail (Collembola) and mite (Acari) species vary at scales that range from a few square centimetres to regional and continental. Different species show different scales of variation that relate to factors such as local geological and glaciological history, and biotic interactions, but only weakly with latitudinal/altitudinal gradients. Here, we review the relevant literature and outline more appropriate sampling designs as well as suitable modelling techniques (e.g. linear mixed models and eigenvector mapping), that will more adequately address and identify the range of factors responsible for the distribution of terrestrial arthropods in Antarctica.

scholarly journals The Role of Arabinogalactan Type II Degradation in Plant-Microbe Interactions

2021 ◽  
Vol 12 ◽  
Author(s):  
Maria Guadalupe Villa-Rivera ◽  
Horacio Cano-Camacho ◽  
Everardo López-Romero ◽  
María Guadalupe Zavala-Páramo
Keyword(s):  
Cell Wall ◽  
Plant Defense ◽  
Plant Cell ◽  
Plant Cell Wall ◽  
Degradation Products ◽  
Hydrolytic Enzymes ◽  
Pathogenic Fungi ◽  
Plant Interactions ◽  
Root Tips ◽  
Microbe Interactions

Arabinogalactans (AGs) are structural polysaccharides of the plant cell wall. A small proportion of the AGs are associated with hemicellulose and pectin. Furthermore, AGs are associated with proteins forming the so-called arabinogalactan proteins (AGPs), which can be found in the plant cell wall or attached through a glycosylphosphatidylinositol (GPI) anchor to the plasma membrane. AGPs are a family of highly glycosylated proteins grouped with cell wall proteins rich in hydroxyproline. These glycoproteins have important and diverse functions in plants, such as growth, cellular differentiation, signaling, and microbe-plant interactions, and several reports suggest that carbohydrate components are crucial for AGP functions. In beneficial plant-microbe interactions, AGPs attract symbiotic species of fungi or bacteria, promote the development of infectious structures and the colonization of root tips, and furthermore, these interactions can activate plant defense mechanisms. On the other hand, plants secrete and accumulate AGPs at infection sites, creating cross-links with pectin. As part of the plant cell wall degradation machinery, beneficial and pathogenic fungi and bacteria can produce the enzymes necessary for the complete depolymerization of AGs including endo-β-(1,3), β-(1,4) and β-(1,6)-galactanases, β-(1,3/1,6) galactanases, α-L-arabinofuranosidases, β-L-arabinopyranosidases, and β-D-glucuronidases. These hydrolytic enzymes are secreted during plant-pathogen interactions and could have implications for the function of AGPs. It has been proposed that AGPs could prevent infection by pathogenic microorganisms because their degradation products generated by hydrolytic enzymes of pathogens function as damage-associated molecular patterns (DAMPs) eliciting the plant defense response. In this review, we describe the structure and function of AGs and AGPs as components of the plant cell wall. Additionally, we describe the set of enzymes secreted by microorganisms to degrade AGs from AGPs and its possible implication for plant-microbe interactions.

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